M1 Flashcards
What is personality psychology?
The individual characteristic patterns of thought, emotions, and behaviour together with the psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind those patterns
When thinking of personality, we tend to think of it as:
- individualized
- consistent
- core of the person (not situation-based)
Psychological triad
how people feel, think, and behave
Goals of Personality Psychology
- primary: assemble an integrated view of whole functioning individuals in their daily environments (impossible goal)
- ‘basic approaches’
Basic approaches in Personality Psychology
- Trait approach: conceptualization of indiv. difference, measurement/consequences of indiv. differences, personality development/change
- Biological approach: anatomy/physiology, genetics, evolution
- Psychoanalytic approach: unconscious minds, internal mental conflict
- Phenomenological approach: free will, humanistic psychology, cross-cultural psychology
- Learning and cognitive approaches: behaviourism, social learning theory, cognitive personality psychology
S Data
Self-report
- easiest method; simply ask someone about themselves
- usually done through questionnaires
- high face validity (know what it’s measuring on the surface)
- most common basis for assessment
Advantages of S data
- large amount of info
- access to thoughts, feelings, intentions
- definitional truth
- causal force (self-verification)
- simple and easy
Disadvantages of S data
- maybe they won’t tell you
- maybe they can’t tell you (fish-and-water effect)
- too simple and too easy
I Data
Informant-Report
- gathering info from other people
- judgemental, subjectively, and irreducibly human
- used in many everyday situations, not just psychology
Advantages of I Data
- large amount of info
- real-world basis
- common sense
- some I data are true by definition
- causal force (expectancy/behavioural confirmation)
Disadvantages of I Data
- limited behavioural info (people are limited to the experiences they have with target person)
- lack of access to private experience
- error (memory)
- bias
L Data
Life Outcomes
- verifiable, concrete, real-life facts that may hold psychological significance
- can be collected in numerous ways
- can be considered ‘residue’ of personality
Advantages of L Data
- objective and verifiable
- intrinsic importance
- psychological relevance
Disadvantages of L Data
- multiple determination
- possible lack of psychological relevance
B Data
Behavioural Observations
- info recorded from direct observation
- participants are found, or put in some sort of situation (testing situation) and directly observed
- 2 Types: Natural and Laboratory
Natural B Data
- diary, experience-sampling methods, and EAR
- natural observations
- realistic but costly
- some behaviours don’t occur in daily situations
Laboratory B Data
- experiments
- physiological measures
- certain personality tests (MMPI, Projective tests like Rorschach and TAT)
Distinction between B and S Data (with regards to personality tests)
S data - want to know the answer; direct
B data - want to know how you will answer; must be interpreted
Advantages and Disadvantage of B Data
Advantage:
- wide range of contexts (real and contrived)
- appearance of objetivity
Disadvantage:
- uncertain interpretation
Behaviouroid
- actual data is a hybrid
- a measure that has participants report what they think they would do under various circumstances
Implicit assessments
measuring associations between the sense of self and aspects of personality that are implicit
- hard to introspect about
- less susceptible to explicit biases
- Implicit Asosciation Test (IAT)
Subjective vs Objective
- subjective requires interpretation
- objective points to a clear understanding
**There is some sort of interpretation in every data; 80 000$ objective yes but we can label as low, average, or high
Studying a particular phenomenon or individual in depth both to understand the particular case and in hopes of discovering general lessons or scientific laws
Case study
- provided foundation for many psychologists (especially personality psych)
Advantages of Case Study
- does the topic justice (allows for depth and complexity)
- can be a source of ideas
- sometimes is absolutely necessary
Disadvantages of Case Study
- not controlled
- not generalizable
- noticed patterns/ideas need to be further tested
A research technique that establishes the relationship (not necessarily causal) between two (or more) variables, by measuring both variables in a sample of participants
Correlational design
Regression
same thing as correlation but looks at multiple predictors (ex; extraversion and neuroticism and some sort of outcome like general mental well-being)
Predictor variable (x)
variable one is using to predict another in a correlation/regression analysis
Criterion variable (y)
variable being predicted by another in a correlation/regression analysis
Advantages and Disadvantage of Correlation Design
Advantages:
- can establish a relationship (can make predictions)
- sometimes the only way to study a specific question (ethics/practicality)
Disadvantage:
- no causation
A research technique that establishes the causal relationship between an independent variable(s) and a dependent variable by randomly assigning participants to experimentally groups characterized by differing levels of the independent variable, and measuring the average of the dependent variable that results in each group
Experimental Design
3 necessary components for an experiment:
- there is manipulation
- there is experimental control
- there is random assignment
Three conditions needed for causality
- covariance: is there an effect?
- temporal precedence: IV has to be manipulated BEFORE measuring the DV (cause before effect)
- internal validity: does the experiment do what we meant for it to do? Did we minimize or eliminate to the best degree we could systematic error or bias? ; won’t be perfect!!! ; are there valid assessments of manipulations, are you controlling for possible alt explanations; making sure people are not influencing participants’ responses unconsciously
Advantages of Experimental Design
- can make causal claims
- experimental control reduces chance of third-variable problems
- statistical control can help reduce noise
Disadvantages of Experimental Design
- cannot be absolutely sure exactly what you manipulated
- levels of IV may not be generalizable to real life (tend to be extreme manipulations)
- often require deception
- sometimes not possible
Multifactor study
a research technique that examines the effects of multiple predictors, both individually and in combination with each other, on an outcome
Quasi-experimental design (QED)
research in which the investigator cannot randomly assign units or participants to conditions, cannot generally control or manipulate the independent variable, and cannot limit the influence of extraneous variables
Interaction
when the effect of one independent variable on a DV is affected by an additional variable
- if lines are going to intersect, you will likely have an interaction
- flat lines = specific variable has no effect
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
method of statistical inference by which an observation is tested against a hypothesis of no effect or no relationship
- tests against a p-value
p-value
probability of finding the observed, or more extreme, results when the null hypothesis of a study question is true
- often set at 0.05
Problems with NHST
- confusing and misrepresented
- statistical significance does not mean practical significance
- cutoffs (0.05) are based on tradition
- p=-values can be sensitive to several factors in the study (ex: # of participants)
- p-hacking
A number that reflects the degree to which one variable affects, or is related to, another variable
Effect size
- ex: correlation coefficients
Practical vs. Statistical Significance
main difference = practical significance is how huge or small an effect is .. more important than statistical significance
Ex: I have method to increase your grade guaranteed only costs about 10 000$…is worth the investment? Well how much is it going to increase my grade by? (PRACTICAL significance)
Omnibus personality assessment
tries to measure a collection of different personality traits
Examples of Personality tests
- MMPI
- CPI
- 16PF
- NEO PI
- IAT
Projective tetss
- rooted within a psychoanalytic perspective
- based on projection theory
- Rorschach, TAT
Advantages of projective tests
- good for breaking the ice
- some skilled clinicians may be able to use them to get info not captured in other types of tests
Disadvantages of projective tests
- validity evidence is scarce
- expensive and time-consuming
- psychologist cannot be sure about what they mean
- other less expensive tests work as well or better
The Rational Method
- items that seem to be directly, obviously, and rationally related to what is being measured
- may come from: theory, have participants list their thoughts, experiences, or views on a relevant topic
- ex: Woodworth’s Personality Data Sheet
Four conditions for validity of the measurement (Rational Method)
- items need to mean the same thing for participant and researcher
- participant must be able to make accurate self-assessment
- participant must be willing to give accurate assessment
- all items must be valid
Factor analysis
a statistical method for finding order amid seeming chaos
- identifies groupings within a list of several items
T or F. Factor analysis usually works very well with rational method in trying to create a more valid measurement
T, After rational method -> Conduct factor analysis just to make sure its trying to get at same concept (a double check on theories or expectations)
Uses of Factor Analysis
- reduce list of traits to an essential few
- refine personality tests
Limitations of Factor Analysis
- the quality of information from the factor analysis is limited by the quality of items
- factors don’t always make sense
- difficulty and subjectivity of deciding how items are conceptually related
The Empirical Method
- a data-driven approach to test construction
- basic assumption: certain kinds of people will have distinctive ways of answering questions on personality inventories
- gather lots of items
- administer items to people already divided into groups
- compare the answers of the different groups
- items may seem absurd or unrelated to personality
Reliability
the tendency of an instrument to provide the same comparative information on repeated occasions
- the less measurement error, the more reliable the measure
- there will always be some error (obstacles with measure, participant, experimenter, and/or environment)
Measurement error
the variation of a number around its true mean due to uncontrolled, essentially random influences (AKA error variance)
Spearman-Brown formula
In psychometrics, a mathematical formula that predicts the degree to which the reliability of a test can be improved by adding more items
Split-half reliability
take your scale and half it when analyzing and see correlation between those two halves..
- Strong correlation = reliability
Validity
the degree to which a measurement actually reflects what one thinks or hopes it does
- must be reliable (but reliable measure not necessarily valid)
- “ultimate truth”
- Construct
- conceptual vs. operational definitions
Construct
something that cannot be directly seen or touched but which affects and helps to explain many different things that are visible
Construct validity
Does the measure reflect the intended construct?
Does the measure predict manifestations of the construct?
Criterion validity
Convergent validity
Does the measure relate to similar constructs?
Does the measure not predict different constructs?
Divergent validity
Face validity
Does the measure appear to reflect the intended construct?
Generalizability
the degree to which a measurement can be found under diverse circumstances, such as time, context, participant population, and so on
-> in modern psychometrics, this term includes both reliability and validity
Cohort effects
tendency of a group of people living at a particular time to be different in some way from those who live earlier or later
Acquiescence bias
participants says yes or agrees or answers all seven on a questionnaire – largely due to ppl not paying attention and wanna be done ASAP; to reduce = place items in there that aren’t negatively worded( framing q’s in an opposite way); if they answer 7 it would actually be 1 – can be exact same thing but said in opposite ways to see what person answers – may not necessarily get rid of bias but will allow us to detect who is engaging in this form of responding
Social desirability
bad if studying human nature
Ease tendency towards social des. :
- Use measures to items that are framed in a non-judgemental way; wont totally rid but will lessen pressure to present oneself in that way
- Or include social desirability in study and either statistically control for that (include analysis) or exclude ppl that meet a certain threshold but if wanna get published -> include both analyses
Response sets
psychological orientation or tendency to respond a certain way to a measurement and these can fall under acquiescence bias or social desirability bias
Trait perspective
the theoretical view of personality that focuses on individual differences in personality and behaviour
2 key points about the trait perspective
- based on empirical research that mostly uses correlational designs
- focuses exclusively on individual differences
Interactionism
the view that instead of seeing personality and the situation as opposing forces, a more accurate view is perhaps they constantly interact with each other and produce behaviour together
Single-trait approach
the research strategy of focusing on one particular trait of interest and learning as much as possible about its behavioural correlates, developmental antecedents, and life consequences
- ex: self-monitoring and narcissism
Self-monitoring
a personality trait characterized bu sensitivity to the social context and a readiness and ability to adapt to it
- high self-monitors: want to be described positively
- low self-monitors: prioritize independence
T or F. High monitors may be easier to predict based on personality
F! Low self-monitors are.
Narcissism
a personality trait associated with high self-regard and pattern of extraverted and confident behaviour
- different than high self esteem
- good impression at first, but annoying in the long run
The research strategy that focuses on a particular behaviour and investigates its correlates with as many different personalty traits as possible in order to explain the basis of the behaviour and to illuminate the workings of personality
Many-trait approach
- ex: California Q-Set and Political orientation
California Q-Set
- measure that contains 100 phrases, each describing an aspect of personality (1 = least characteristic of you; 9 - most)
- responses are force-sorted into a distribution using 9 categories (least to most characteristic)
- > can be either S or I data
Essential-trait approach
research strategy that attempts to narrow the list of thousands of trait terms into a shorter list of the ones that really matter
- theoretical and factor analytical approaches
- > Eysenck’s three dimensions and Cattell’s 16 Factors
- ex: “The Big Five”
Lexical hypothesis (criterion)
the important aspects of human life will be labeled with words, and that if something is truly important and universal, many words for it will exist in all languages
The factor that refers to being sociable and outgoing, but also includes traits such as active, outspoken, dominant forceful, and adventurous
Extraversion
Neuroticism
trait associated with the use of ineffective means for dealing with problems in life and have stronger negative reactions to stressful events
- emotional instability
- predicts a number of negative outcomes (mental well-being, interpersonal relationships, medical, etc.)
- some argue it captures a general tendency towards psychopathology
Conscientiousness
a trait that reflects being dutiful, careful, rule-abiding, and (in some studies) ambitious
- also see these in animals
- predicts better work, social, and health outcomes
- prone to guilt if fail to live up to standards, not necessarily popular, less creative
- more likely to obey and conform
Agreeableness
associated with the tendency to be cooperative, an essential behaviour in small social groups
- evolutionarily important
- has also been labeled conformity, friendly, compliance, warmth, and likability
- predicts several socially relevant outcomes
- 2 different aspects predict political ideologies: compassion = liberalism; politeness = conservatism
A trait that reflects a tendency towards being creative, imaginative, open-minded, and clever
Openness to experience
- nature debated (culture or intellect)
- spottiest record interms of replication cross samples/cultures
- appreciation of nature, drug use, ‘sophisticated music’
- beliefs in non-mainstream ideas/events
- curious, tends to know many things in many domains but may be prone to ‘overclaim’
Main critique of Big Five
personality is more than just 5 traits
- proponents = accept there may be more than 5 (ex: honesty-humility)
- some possible additions could be a combination of varying levels of the Big Five but this still leaves something left to be desired for many
The research strategy that focuses on identifying types of individuals. Each type is characterized by a particular pattern of traits
Typological approach
- some differences may be qualitative rather than quantitative
- some focus more on types that differ by the possession of different characteristics
- ex: Hogwarts’ house, Myer Briggs (Jung theory)
Pros of The Trait Perspective
- most basic of all approaches, essentially parsimonious (simple, doesn’t add any assumption)
- long history
Cons of The Trait Perspective
- doesn’t tell us how or why an individual behaves a certain way (just that they do)
- susceptible to and tautological reasoning
The Motive Perspective
examines personality in relation to various motivations, the processes underlying the motivations, and the correlates/outcomes of those motivations
- Henry Murray
- motives are or can be a strong aspect of our identity
- needs, motives, and press underlie thoughts and actions
Need
an internal state that’s less than satisfactory due to a lack of something necessary
- exist at different levels
- needs are particular and directive
Press
an external condition that prompts a desire to get (or avoid) something
- may reignite motives previously fulfilled
Motive dispositions
the dispositional tendency toward high/low levels of some motive
Incentive
the degree to which an action will satisfy a need
Apperception
perceiving stimuli in light of one’s own experiences and motives
Need for Achievement
- the desire to do things well, to feel pleasure from overcoming obstacles
- responses in PSE mention goal-related behaviours and feelings
- predicts several goal-related variables
- may be focused rather than general
- not good for presidents
The motive to have impact on others, to have prestige, and to feel strong compared to others
Need for power
- responses in PSE mentions force or power (esp. over others)
- predicts variables that are associated w/ signifiers of power and status (harmful behaviours in relationships; use of alcohol)
- responsibility is an important moderator
- predicts more effective presidents
The motive to spend time with others and form friendly social ties
Need for affiliation
- responses in PSE mention building or maintaining positive relationships
- predicts various social-judgment and behaviour variables
- need for intimacy
Need for intimacy
- subset of affiliation
- the desire to experience warm, close, and communicative exchanges with another person, to feel close to another person
- predicts better relationship and interaction outcomes with others
Inhibited Power Motivation
the condition of having more need for power than affiliation but restraining its (power) use
- predicts managerial and persuasion success
- can be influential in starting/avoiding war
Goals
the ends of what one desires
Strategies
the means the individual uses to achieve their goals ; ppl may have goals but lack strategies
Idiographic goals
goals that are unique to the individual who pursues them
- current concerns are ongoing motivations that persists in mind until goal is attained/abandoned (more you value/commit, more you think about them)
- may operate independently from one another
- help organize thoughts/behaviours but are not inherently organized themselves in a coherent manner
Personal projects
- personal projects are made up of the efforts people put into goals
- idiographic
Personal strivings
- idiographic
- personal strivings are long-term goals that can organize broad areas of a person’s life
- > can cause issues when they conflict w/ each other (must eliminate this)
The types of idiographic goals share some elements
- held consciously at least some of the time
- describe thoughts/behaviours aimed at specific outcomes
- changeable over time
The relatively small number of essential motivations that almost everyone pursues
Nomothetic goals
Nomothetic goals
- big three: achievements, affiliation (or intimacy), and power
- big five (motives): enjoyment, self-asserting, esteem, interpersonal success, and avoidance of negative affect
- big two: work and social interaction
Dweck: two important goals are based on …
judgment and development
Judgment goals
seeking to judge or validate an attribute in oneself
Developmental goals
desire to actually improve oneself
Dweck roots judgment/developmental goals within distinct mindsets
- entity theory: belief that personal quantities are unchangeable
- incremental theory: belief that personal qualities can change through time and/o experience
A negative outlook on life that may also motivate goal-seeking behaviour in order to attempt to avoid “almost certain doom”
- defensive pessimism
- expect the worst hope for the best
- optimists and defensive pessimists succeed equally in coping with anxiety and performing well on exams
- what’s better may depend on culture
- optimists happier but more reckless
Advantages of Motive Perspective
- intuitively appealing
- outlines how dispositions can influence behaviour (intrapersonal functioning)
- motive states fluctuate
Limitations of Motive Perspective
- qualities seem to be arbitrary and rarely critiqued by followers
- researchers tend to focus only on one need at a time
T or F. On average, you can pick someone that grew up on complete opposite of world and your genetics will be 99% similar
T! genetics aren’t everything
Heritability coefficient
the degree to which variance of the trait in the population can be attributed to variance in genes
-DOES NOT MEAN that a trait you have is X% due to genetics….
The study of the inheritance of behavioural qualities
Behavioural genetics
Molecular genetics
the study of how alleles of specific genes relate to other observed differences
- alleles: version of a particular gene
DRD4
role of development of dopamine receptors ; rewards; impulsivity, attention seeking and ADHD
- Active in risk taking behaviour - also seeking risks
- For skiers and snowboarders - DRD4 gene didn’t actually have an influence in risk taking behaviour ; other genetics, situational and environmental factors can play a role
5-HTT
(one shorter allele and other is longer) - will influence serotonin (depression, anxiety, social phobias); SSRIs to treat depression - increase activity of serotonin in brain = lower levels of anxiety and depression
- higher scores of neuroticism = short alleles = more fearful/fearful responses to a lot of different unpleasant stimuli (mutilated bodies, polluted sceneries, etc.); harder to exist in a more emotionally stable way
Epigenetics
an effect that isn’t on DNA but affects DNA functioning and can be inherited
- ex: experiencing trauma (abuse, slavery, surviving genocide, etc.) ; will affect how DNA functions bc stress has effect on how genes are expressed; might be through malnourishment or other physiological process – can be passed down to children - now they can experience depression and anxiety
Many traits evolved to solve a problem but led to unintended new problems later
Aggression: protection but used for non-protective aggression
Selfishness in terms of genes (rather than individual)
Altruism
Inclusive fitness
more likely to help out mother, father brother, sister than a cousin; inclusive fitness = more like to be altruistic to someone more genetically similar to u ; helps genes spread!
- happening below level of consciousness
Westermarck effect
Indivs who are raised from a very early age together tend to not have sexual attraction towards each other; to instill a sense of incest avoidance ; explains why brothers and sisters are not attracted to each other even though they are genetically similar – reverse imprinting ; doesn’t have to have genetic similarity either; like two adopted siblings
Criticisms = some ppl think the results were misunderstood; women are less likely to communicate with their fathers when they’re ovulating .. So no passing of bad genes (leads to birth defects)
“Sexy son” hypothesis
female’s ideal mate choice among potential mates is one whose genes will produce male offspring with the best chance of reproductive success. This implies that other benefits the father can offer the mother or offspring are less relevant than they may appear, including his capacity as a parental caregiver, territory and any nuptial gifts.
Psychoanalytic approach
the theoretical view of personality, based on the writings of Freud that emphasizes the unconscious processes of the mind
Psychodynamic psychology
the theoretical view of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience
- encompasses psychoanalysis
- examines relationship between conscious and unconscious
- often considers the conflict of psychological processes/impulses/urges
Psychic determinism
the assumption that everything that happens in a person’s mind has a specific cause
- no miracles, free will, or even random accidents
- all ostensible contradictions can be understood by digging deep into the unconscious
Libido
psychic (mental) energy, rooted in the drive towards creating, nurturing, and the enhancement of life (including but not limited to sex)
- catharsis
The topographical model of the mind
- conscious: what you are currently aware of
- preconscious: what we are not currently aware of but could easily be moved to the conscious
- unconscious: part of the mind not accessible to the conscious
Primary motivator
unconscious!
- desires, urges, feelings, memories, and ideas tied to anxiety, conflict, or pain
The structural model of personality
- Id: the inherited, instinctive, primitive aspects of personality
- Ego: the rational part of the personality that deals pragmatically with reality
- Supergo: the embodiment of parental and societal values
Pleasure principle
all needs should be satisfied IMMEDIATELY
- doesn’t understand concept of “no”; needs are always pleasant
Primary process
formation of an unconscious image of an object or even that would satisfy a need
Reality principle
the idea that actions must take into account the constraints of external reality
Secondary process
matching of the unconscious image of a tension-reducing object to a real object
Introjection
the absorption of values of the parents into the superego
Ego Ideal
rules for good behaviour and standards of excellence
Conscience
rules about what behaviours the parents disapprove of and punish
Ego strength
the ego’s ability to be effective despite trying to balance the impulses from the pleasure principle, the reality principle, and the societal expectations of the superego
Freud’s iceberg
metaphor for typographical model of the mind and the structural model of personality
Oral Stage
- birth to 18 months
- mouth, lips, and tongue
- id
- dependence and passivity
- oral character: dependent and overly independent
Anal Stage
- 18 months to 3 years old
- anus and organs of elimination
- ego
- obedience and self-control
- anal character: obedient and obsessed with order or anti-authority and chaotic
Phallic Stage
- 3 to 5/7 years old
- sexual organs
- superego
- gender identity and sexuality
- love, fear, and jealousy
- development of morality
- phallic character: over- and under-sexualized
Latency Stage
- 5/7 years old to puberty
- physical focus and relevant mental structure is N/A
- psychological theme is learning and cognitive development- oral character: N/A
Genital Stage
- puberty to adulthood
- sexuality in the context of a mature relationship
- id, ego, and superego are well balanced
- creation and enhancement of life
- a mature adult (seldom achieved)
Regression
the return to a previous stage, often under stress or anxiety
Fixation
the libidinal energy that is left behind in development at a stage to struggling with some issue
Thanatos
the death drive; drive toward death and disorder ; trend to entropy
Drive to create, protect, and enjoyment of life and with creativity, productivity, and growth
Libido (life/sexual drive)
Doctrine of opposites
- everything implies, even requires, its opposite
- extremes on opposite ends may be more similar to each other than those in between
- life and death drive shows doctrine of opposites
Throughout the different stages of development, people are undergoing a profound but incomplete shift between two kinds of thinking
- Secondary process thinking: what we ordinarily mean by the word “think”
- Primary process thinking: the way the unconscious mind operates
Parapraxes
the leakage from the unconscious mind manifesting as a mistake, accident, omission, or memory lapse; “Freudian slips”
Defense mechanisms
the mechanisms of the ego that serve to protect an individual from experiencing anxiety produced by the id, superego, or reality
Transference
the process in which feelings toward other people in the patient’s life are displaced onto the therapist
- countertransference
Insight
an emotional re-experiencing of earlier conflicts in one’s life during therapy
Shortcomings of the Psychoanalytic Perspective
- excessive complexity
- case study method
- vague definitions
- untestability
- sexism
Why do we study Freud?
- historical importance
- right about some important things
- importance in therapeutic process
- only person to put forth a complete theory of personality
- pop culture
- fun!
3 major differences between Freudian and neo-Freudian thought
- sex as less important
- less focus on the unconscious
- less emphasis on instinctual drives and mental life and more on interpersonal relationships
Ego psychology
a branch off of psychodynamic theory that focuses more on perception, memory, learning, and rational, conscious thinking
- looks more like current mainstream psychology
One of the first major disciples to be at odds with Freud
Alfred Adler
Social interest
the desire to relate positively and productively with other people
Organ inferiority
the idea that people are motivated to succeed in adulthood in order to compensate for whatever they felt, in childhood, was their weakest aspect
- AKA inferiority complex
The masculine protest
a particular urge in adulthood to attempt to compensate for one’s sense of powerlessness felt in childhood
- NOT specific to men, happened to women too - told what to do by parents, punished for misbehaving, school, culture at large, bullies, mentors etc. ; want to establish their own sense of power over other people
Collective unconscious
the proposition that all people share certain unconscious ideas because of the history of the human species
Archetypes
the fundamental images of people that are contained in the collective unconscious
Persona
the social mask someone wears in public dealings
Shadow
an archetype that represents the “darker side” of the human psyche
We all have a “masculine” and “feminine” side and will use that to (mis)understand the opposite sex
Anima: the idea of the female as held in the mind of a male
Animus: the idea of the male as held in the mind of the female
What happens if we use the persona too often?
start to lose who you are if you focus on providing persona too often … don’t know who we are anymore
- want to use persona minimally
- trying to meet societal expressions (don’t use it to navigate through the world all the time)
We tend to be ashamed of some things in our life so we hide it from other people and even ourselves
Shadow
This helps in maintaining gender roles in different cultures
Animus/Anima; can also lead to negative outcomes of interactions
Karen Horney
- feminine psychology and basic anxiety
- disagreed with ‘penis envy’ and women’s desire to be male ; maybe rooted in societal freedom of men
- womb envy?
- adult behaviour is often based on efforts to overcome the basic anxiety acquired in childhood; neurotic needs
Freud’s most important revisionist
Erik Erikson
Object Relations Theory
the psychoanalytic study of interpersonal relations, including the unconscious images and feelings associated with the important people (“objects”) in a person’s life
- not all objects match reality, which may cause problems
- generated a huge literature and is the most active area of psychoanalytic thinking at present
4 principle themes of Object Relations Theory
- every relationship has elements of satisfaction and frustration
- mix of love and hate
- distinction between the parts of the love object and whole person
- person is aware and disturbed by these contradictory feelings
Melanie Klein
- object relations theory
- one of the earliest psychoanalysts to work with children (also Anna Freud)
- use of play for diagnosis
- paranoid and depressive positions
- idealization is a symptom of underlying hostility being defended against at all costs
Paranoid and Depressive positions
- paranoid = children wished to destroy bad part (of parents through play) bc they feared being destroyed
- depressive position = worshipped and protected good part bc feared losing it
**no matter how good the relationship, these things arise bc there are negative aspects of parents that children don’t like bc they try to tell them what to do but only for their own good
But again, tendency to split good vs bad **
D.W. Winnicott and Object Relations Theory
- influenced by Klein
- “niffle” and transitional objects embedded with magical emotional meaning for comfor
- “false self” is normal and at times necessary but override the true self too much (false self similar to persona; when ppl try to put on a different face for a variety of reasons)
An emotional connection with someone else
Attachment
- secure, ambivalent, and avoidant = generally consistent and difficult to change
The strange situation
a process used to assess the attachment pattern of the infant to the caregiver that looks at the reactions of the infant in relation to various combinations of being alone, being with the caregiver, and being with the researcher
- Mary Ainsworth
Adult attachment
- avoidant: predicts less acceptance of others if they possess undesirable characteristics
- ambivalent: generally have more extremes in their relationships
- secure: most people; tend to have stronger and healthier relationships
Bartholomew and Horowitz’s Attachment Model
categorized attachment based on two different judgements: positive-negative views of the self and others
- we tend to display some consistency in attachment styles with other people but there is some variability across these relationships (baseline attachment style)
