M/F/Intersectionality in Education

Question 1

According to Althusser and Bourdieu, how does education maintain class inequality in Marxist theory?

Answer 1

Althusser views education as an Ideological State Apparatus used to legitimise inequality.

Bourdieu (1977) adds that schools commit symbolic violence by devaluing w/c culture, limiting social mobility (e.g., Connolly 2000 – opting out of 11+).

Question 2

How do Bowles and Gintis describe the role of education in producing a workforce, according to Marxism?

Answer 2

Bowles and Gintis argue that the hidden curriculum teaches obedience and hierarchy, creating a passive workforce.
Through the correspondence principle, school structures mirror work environments, reproducing labour power and class inequality.

Question 3

How does the Marxist concept of the “myth of meritocracy” explain class inequality in education?

Answer 3

Bowles and Gintis claim meritocracy is a myth used to justify inequality. Through the hidden curriculum, students are taught to believe success is based on effort, when it often reflects class privilege (e.g., private school MPs).

Question 4

How does Paul Willis’ Neo-Marxist perspective challenge traditional Marxist views on education?

Answer 4

Willis, in “Learning to Labour”, found that some working-class ‘lads’ form counter-school subcultures that reject school values. Despite this resistance, they still end up in w/c jobs—showing the continued reproduction of class inequality through culture.

Question 5

How do Interactionists critique the Marxist view that education passively transmits ideology?

Answer 5

Cooley argues that Marxism is overly deterministic, assuming pupils are passively brainwashed. Neo-Marxists like Willis show that pupils often resist school values through behaviours like truancy and rebellion, demonstrating agency.

Question 6

What do Functionalist and New Right theorists argue about the fairness of education, in contrast to Marxists?

Answer 6

Davis and Moore believe education fairly allocates roles based on merit and ability. Peter Saunders (New Right) supports the idea that social mobility exists, and success is based on intelligence—not just class background.

Question 7

What empirical evidence questions the effectiveness of education in reinforcing capitalism, as argued by Marxists?

Answer 7

Ofsted reports frequent classroom disruption, casting doubt on Bowles and Gintis’ claim that schools effectively instil capitalist norms through the hidden curriculum. This challenges the validity of the correspondence principle.

Question 8

What are the key criticisms of Paul Willis’ “Learning to Labour” study from a methodological and feminist perspective?

Answer 8

The study’s small, male-only sample of 12 boys limits its generalisability. Feminists argue Willis romanticised the lads’ anti-social behaviour and ignored sexism, failing to challenge toxic masculinity.

Question 9

What is the Functionalist perspective on education’s role in the economy, as proposed by Durkheim?

Answer 9

Durkheim argues education provides the specialised skills needed for the complex division of labour. Vocational education helps socialise students into future work roles and prepare them for cooperation.

Question 10

How do Marxists such as Bowles and Gintis explain the relationship between education and the economy?

Answer 10

Education prepares a passive, obedient workforce that serves capitalist needs. Bowles and Gintis describe how the hidden curriculum and correspondence principle reproduce labour power and class inequality.

Question 11

How do Functionalists such as Davis and Moore justify inequality in educational outcomes?

Answer 11

Davis and Moore argue education is a mechanism of role allocation. Through meritocratic exams and qualifications, individuals are sorted into roles appropriate to their talents and efforts.

Question 12

How does Althusser’s Marxist perspective explain education’s function in the capitalist economy?

Answer 12

Althusser sees education as part of the ideological state apparatus, reinforcing ruling-class values. It legitimises capitalism by shaping students to accept their future economic roles and limiting social mobility.

Question 13

How does the Wolf Review challenge Functionalist assumptions about vocational education?

Answer 13

The 2011 Wolf Review found that many vocational courses don’t lead to skilled jobs or further education. This contradicts Durkheim’s idea that vocational education teaches the specialist skills required by the economy.

Question 14

What do Ofsted findings suggest about the reliability of Marxist claims regarding education and workforce discipline?

Answer 14

Ofsted reports frequent low-level disruption in schools, casting doubt on the hidden curriculum’s role in producing obedient workers. This challenges Bowles and Gintis’ correspondence principle.

Question 15

How do Marxist and New Right theorists differ on whether education is meritocratic?

Answer 15

Bowles and Gintis argue meritocracy is a myth used to justify inequality. Peter Saunders (New Right) disagrees, claiming education enables social mobility and rewards intelligence over class.

Question 16

How do Neo-Marxist and Postmodernist perspectives critique economic explanations of education?

Answer 16

Willis shows that resistance to the hidden curriculum exists, even if class inequality persists. Postmodernists argue globalisation and identity diversity weaken traditional economic roles of education.

Question 17

How have external to education feminist movements influenced girls’ educational achievement?

Answer 17

Liberal feminists argue that by challenging traditional gender roles, feminism raised girls’ aspirations. McRobbie (1994) found media now promotes independent women, encouraging girls to aim for academic and career success.

Question 18

How have external to education changes in family structure impacted girls’ educational achievement?

Answer 18

Functionalists note increased divorce and lone-parent households—42% of marriages now end in divorce. Girls are socialised to seek financial independence, which motivates educational achievement. This is reinforced by internal encouragement in schools.

Question 19

How does increased external to education female employment encourage educational success among girls?

Answer 19

Liberal feminists highlight how laws like the Equal Pay Act (1970) and growing female employment (now nearing 70%) show structural progress. Girls now see education as a route to financial autonomy and status.

Question 20

What did Sharpe’s research reveal about external influences changing ambitions of girls and its impact on achievement?

Answer 20

Sharpe (1994) found girls in the 1990s prioritised careers over family, unlike in the 1970s. This shift, influenced by feminism and economic changes, led to increased educational effort.

Question 21

How do internal school processes support or contradict external feminist influences on achievement?

Answer 21

Interactionists argue internal factors like labelling and higher teacher expectations reinforce external gains. Mitsos & Browne (1998) found girls benefit from coursework due to socialisation in organisation.

Question 22

How do subcultures in school challenge the influence of external gender equality efforts?

Answer 22

Neo-Marxists like Sewell found w/c boys form anti-school subcultures, resisting academic success. Fuller showed black girls formed pro-school subcultures, showing how external factors interact with school culture.

Question 23

How do intersectional feminist critiques complicate external explanations of gender achievement?

Answer 23

Hussain (2008) found some Asian girls face familial pressure to prioritise marriage. This highlights how ethnicity and class can mediate external feminist influences.

Question 24

Why is the gender pay gap still a limitation to feminist progress in education?

Answer 24

Radical feminists argue structural inequality persists. Despite academic success, the gender pay gap remains at 11.3% (ONS, 2019), which may demotivate girls by showing limits to real-world gains from education.

Question 25

How does Internal to education teacher labelling contribute to gender differences in educational achievement?

Answer 25

Interactionists argue labels shape expectations. Abraham (1986) found girls were seen as hardworking and boys as disruptive, influencing self-concept and academic performance.

Question 26

How do pupil subcultures reflect gendered experiences in education?

Answer 26

Neo-Marxists like Willis found boys form counter-school subcultures, rejecting education as unmasculine. In contrast, Fuller showed black girls resisted negative labels and worked hard, showing gendered responses to school.

Question 27

What is the feminisation of education and how does it affect boys’ achievement?

Answer 27

Sewell (2006) argues schools favour traits like attentiveness, more common in girls. Boys may feel alienated by the lack of male role models and assessment methods that don’t suit their learning style.

Question 28

How has the national curriculum and assessment methods contributed to girls’ success?

Answer 28

Liberal feminists credit curriculum reforms like coursework for benefiting girls. Mitsos & Browne (1998) found girls excel in coursework due to better organisation and motivation.

Question 29

How do external factors challenge the idea that teacher labelling alone explains gendered achievement?

Answer 29

Feminists argue girls’ ambitions have risen due to broader societal shifts, such as feminism and career opportunities. Internal school labelling builds on these external changes.

Question 30

What are the critiques of Sewell’s 'feminisation of education' theory?

Answer 30

Becky Francis found students don’t consider teacher gender important. Radical feminists note men still dominate senior roles, suggesting education hasn’t fully feminised.

Question 31

How do external family changes reinforce internal school processes in shaping gender achievement?

Answer 31

Functionalists argue family structures prepare girls for independence, while schools reinforce this via labelling and encouragement. The interaction boosts female achievement.

Question 32

Why is it important to apply an intersectional lens to internal school explanations?

Answer 32

Black feminist perspectives highlight that class, gender, and ethnicity intersect. Some girls may resist labels (Fuller), while others may conform or disengage due to cultural pressure (Hussain).

Question 33

How does material deprivation influence working-class educational achievement?

Answer 33

Marxists argue poverty limits access to resources. Douglas (1964) linked poor housing, diet, and lack of study space to lower achievement. Today, 4.2 million UK children live in poverty, increasing these disadvantages.

Question 34

What is cultural deprivation and how does it affect educational success?

Answer 34

Cultural deprivation theorists argue w/c pupils lack values like deferred gratification. Sugarman (1970) found w/c children are socialised into fatalism and immediate gratification, harming long-term educational motivation.

Question 35

How does linguistic deprivation contribute to class inequality in schools?

Answer 35

Bernstein (1977) found w/c pupils use a restricted speech code, limiting their ability to express ideas. This clashes with the elaborated code used by teachers and exams, disadvantaging them academically.

Question 36

What is the role of cultural capital in reproducing class inequality in education?

Answer 36

Bourdieu argues m/c families pass down cultural capital that aligns with school values. Ball (2003) found m/c parents were 'skilled choosers' in the education system, unlike w/c 'disconnected choosers'.

Question 37

How do internal school processes reinforce material deprivation’s impact on achievement?

Answer 37

Interactionists argue teacher labelling compounds external disadvantage. Becker (1970) found teachers viewed m/c pupils as ideal, leading w/c pupils to be underestimated and placed in lower streams.

Question 38

How do school subcultures reinforce the effects of cultural deprivation?

Answer 38

Neo-Marxists like Willis found w/c boys formed counter-school subcultures rejecting school norms. These attitudes reflect external values of fatalism and anti-school sentiments.

Question 39

How does streaming and setting amplify the disadvantages caused by linguistic deprivation?

Answer 39

Gillborn & Youdell (2001) found w/c students were often placed in lower sets based on assumptions about language and ability, limiting access to higher-tier exams and opportunities.

Question 40

How does marketisation reinforce cultural capital advantages of m/c families?

Answer 40

Ball (2003) found m/c parents use their knowledge to navigate league tables and admissions, while w/c parents lack this capital. Marketisation thus deepens external inequalities within school structures.

Question 41

How does teacher labelling affect working-class educational achievement?

Answer 41

Interactionists like Becker (1970) found teachers judge pupils against a m/c ‘ideal’. W/c pupils are more likely to be negatively labelled, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies and lower achievement.

Question 42

How do school subcultures form as a response to internal labelling?

Answer 42

Willis (1977) found that w/c boys rejected school values, forming anti-school subcultures. These were often shaped by internal labelling and lack of support, reproducing class inequality.

Question 43

How do setting and streaming reinforce social class inequalities in school?

Answer 43

Gillborn & Youdell (2001) found teachers placed w/c students in lower sets, limiting access to top exam tiers. These decisions reflect assumptions about ability and reinforce inequality.

Question 44

How does marketisation influence internal school responses to working-class pupils?

Answer 44

Bartlett (1993) found schools engage in ‘cream-skimming’ and ‘silt-shifting’. W/c pupils are often seen as less desirable due to lower attainment, leading to reduced investment and support.

Question 45

How do external material conditions influence teacher expectations in school?

Answer 45

Marxists argue that w/c deprivation affects how pupils are perceived. Poor appearance or lack of equipment can lead to low expectations and reduced academic opportunities.

Question 46

How do family-based values shape pupils' reactions to school labelling?

Answer 46

Sugarman (1970) found w/c values like fatalism shape responses to internal processes. Pupils may reject school rules and form subcultures aligned with external values.

Question 47

What external evidence supports critiques of the labelling and streaming process?

Answer 47

Studies like Ball (2003) show that m/c parents use their cultural capital to challenge or avoid negative labels, while w/c parents lack the knowledge to intervene effectively.

Question 48

How do external and internal factors interact to reproduce class inequality in education?

Answer 48

External disadvantages like material or cultural deprivation are reinforced by internal processes like labelling and setting. Together, they create a cycle of low expectation and underachievement.

Question 49

How does material deprivation affect ethnic minority achievement, according to Marxist theory?

Answer 49

Marxists argue capitalism produces class and racial inequalities that reduce life chances. Flaherty (2004) found Pakistani and Bangladeshi households were over 3x more likely to live in poverty, limiting access to resources like books and internet, directly impacting academic attainment.

Question 50

What is cultural deprivation, and how is it applied to ethnic differences in education?

Answer 50

The New Right perspective (Scruton) argues some ethnic minorities fail to adopt British cultural norms such as deferred gratification. Sugarman’s theory of immediate gratification helps explain how some ethnic groups underachieve due to home values that conflict with educational success.

Question 51

How do Functionalists explain differences in achievement through family structure?

Answer 51

Functionalists like Parsons argue that the nuclear family socialises children into the norms needed for success. Basit (2013) found Pakistani and Indian families placed high value on education, viewing it as essential for upward mobility, even in contexts of material hardship.

Question 52

How does wider societal racism influence ethnic educational outcomes according to Marxist theory?

Answer 52

Marxists argue structural racism in capitalist institutions demotivates students. Wood et al. (2010) found ethnic minority candidates were significantly less likely to be offered interviews—reflecting wider inequalities that reduce pupils’ belief in meritocracy.

Question 53

How does Interactionism critique material deprivation in explaining ethnic underachievement?

Answer 53

Interactionists argue that school-based labelling plays a greater role than income. Gillborn & Mirza (2000) found black pupils entered school above average but fell behind due to teacher stereotyping, showing deprivation alone doesn’t explain ethnic disparities.

Question 54

How do Neo-Marxists critique cultural deprivation explanations of ethnic underachievement?

Answer 54

Neo-Marxists like Sewell (1998) argue cultural explanations blame ethnic minorities for failure. His research shows punitive school responses to black masculinity have a greater impact than supposed cultural deficiencies.

Question 55

How does Critical Race Theory view the link between school and societal racism?

Answer 55

CRT sees institutional racism as embedded in school policies. The Commission for Racial Equality (1993) found that ethnic minority students were less likely to access top schools due to biased admissions, reflecting systemic exclusion.

Question 56

How do Postmodernists challenge broad generalisations about ethnic disadvantage?

Answer 56

Postmodernists argue identities are fragmented and complex. Success of Chinese and Indian students despite deprivation shows internal agency and school culture can outweigh external economic barriers.

Question 57

How does teacher labelling affect ethnic minority students according to Interactionist theory?

Answer 57

Interactionists argue that teacher expectations shape student identity. Wright (1992) found Asian pupils were marginalised through language assumptions, while Gillborn & Mirza (2000) showed black pupils faced harsher discipline, affecting academic engagement.

Question 58

How do school subcultures contribute to ethnic group differences in achievement?

Answer 58

From a Neo-Marxist lens, Sewell (1998) identified responses to labelling among black boys, including rebels and conformists. However, teachers often assumed all were rebellious, reinforcing stereotypes and limiting opportunity.

Question 59

What is the impact of the ethnocentric curriculum according to Critical Race Theory?

Answer 59

CRT scholars argue the curriculum privileges white narratives. Ball suggests a 'Little England' approach that ignores the histories and achievements of black and Asian people, lowering minority pupil self-esteem and motivation.

Question 60

How does marketisation reflect institutional racism, according to Interactionism?

Answer 60

Interactionists argue marketisation benefits white m/c families. The Commission for Racial Equality (1993) found that application processes were often biased, e.g., lacking translation, which systematically disadvantaged ethnic minorities.

Question 61

How do Functionalists explain ethnic group success despite internal racism?

Answer 61

Functionalists argue that culturally supportive family environments can buffer school bias. Basit (2013) found Indian parents made education a top priority, helping children succeed despite ethnocentric structures.

Question 62

How does Marxism link school labelling to wider racial disadvantage?

Answer 62

Marxists argue teacher labelling reflects economic structures of racial inequality. Wood et al. (2010) exposed systemic hiring bias, and in school, black students face similar structural assumptions from teachers.

Question 63

How does Postmodernism challenge the idea that internal school processes affect all ethnic minorities equally?

Answer 63

Postmodernists argue educational outcomes vary by individual identity. Despite systemic issues, many Indian and Chinese pupils succeed, showing internal school processes are not universally determinist.

Question 64

How do Interactionists explain the interaction of internal and external factors in ethnic achievement?

Answer 64

Interactionists suggest that pupil-teacher relationships reflect external inequalities. Gillborn argues that teacher stereotyping, when combined with economic deprivation, compounds disadvantage for black students.

Question 65

How do Functionalists argue education promotes value consensus through social solidarity?

Answer 65

Durkheim (1897) argued education maintains collective consciousness by transmitting shared norms and values. Through rituals like assemblies, schools offset individualism and prevent anomie, supporting value consensus and social harmony.

Question 66

How does Parsons explain the role of school as a bridge between the home and wider society?

Answer 66

Parsons, a Functionalist, viewed school as a 'focal socialising agency' that transitions children from particularistic family values to universalistic societal values. It prepares students for meritocratic competition and social roles.

Question 67

According to Functionalists like Durkheim, how does education provide specialist skills for economic needs?

Answer 67

Durkheim believed industrial economies require diverse specialised roles. Schools teach necessary skills and values, especially through vocational education, enabling pupils to cooperate and contribute to a complex division of labour.

Question 68

How do Davis and Moore justify the role allocation function of education in society?

Answer 68

Functionalists Davis and Moore argue inequality is necessary for role allocation. Education sifts and sorts individuals into appropriate roles based on merit, with those most talented rewarded with higher positions.

Question 69

How do Interactionists critique the Functionalist idea of value consensus in education?

Answer 69

Interactionists argue Functionalists present an over-socialised view. Pupils do not passively absorb values—they interpret and sometimes reject school norms, as seen in the resistance of counter-school subcultures.

Question 70

How do Feminists challenge the Functionalist view of education as a neutral bridge?

Answer 70

Feminists like Oakley argue education reproduces patriarchy, not neutrality. Gendered socialisation and role modelling in schools prepare girls for subordinate roles, contradicting meritocratic ideals.

Question 71

How does the Wolf Review (2011) critique the Functionalist view that education teaches specialist skills?

Answer 71

The Wolf Report found many vocational courses lacked value in the job market. This challenges Durkheim’s claim that schools efficiently prepare students for economic life through skill development.

Question 72

What is the Marxist critique of role allocation and meritocracy in education?

Answer 72

Bowles and Gintis argue the education system promotes a 'myth of meritocracy' to justify class inequality. Success often depends on inherited privilege, not talent, maintaining the dominance of the ruling class.