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Y4 exotics > Lymphoreticular cell biology > Flashcards

Lymphoreticular cell biology Flashcards

1
Q

Rabbit circulatory volume

A
  • approx 55-70ml/kg
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2
Q

How much blood can you take from up a rabbit?

A
  • 10% blood volume (/1% BW)
  • 5.5-7ml/kg (but unlikely to need more than 2ml)
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3
Q

Rabbit blood tubes

A
  • EDTA for haematology
  • serum or lithium heparin for biochemistry
  • fluoride oxalate for glucose
  • 2 fresh blood smears
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4
Q

Locations for rabbit venipuncture

A
  • jugular
  • cephalic
  • saphenous
  • marginal ear vein (not middle artery)
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5
Q

Risk of rabbit venipuncture from the marginal ear vein

A
  • can cause pinna neurosis if use a rough technique or repeated sampling
  • need to apply pressure for longer afterwards to avoid haematomas
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6
Q

Jugular vein sampling in rabbits

A
  • similar technique to cat
  • dewlap can get in the way
  • restraint may inhibit respiration
  • much faster bleeding time cf ear vein
  • sternal wide forelimbs extended
  • if get haematoma or thrombosis after sampling it can block the vein -> causes oedema of the eye and potentially loss of vision
  • beware of hyperextension of the neck also -> may compress and block the airway
  • always avoid in dyspneic rabbits
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7
Q

Cephalic and saphenous venipuncture in rabbits

A
  • similar technique to cat
  • ensure proper restraint
  • common for cephalic vein to be more branched, so clip and check edges to see if better area
  • saphenous -> vein raised just past the stifle, access vein just as it passes the hock
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8
Q

Guinea pig circulatory volume

A
  • approx 70-75ml/kg
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9
Q

How much blood can you take from a guinea pig?

A
  • 1% BW / 10% blood volume
  • 7-7.5ml/kg
  • limit blood sample size if anaemic or in circulatory shock
  • rarely need more than 2ml
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10
Q

Locations for guinea pig venipuncture

A
  • cephalic vein (situated more lateral)
  • cranial vena cava (most useful for large blood draws)
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11
Q

Average blood volume of rats, mice, gerbils & hamsters

A
  • 60-70ml/kg
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12
Q

How much blood can you take from a rat/mouse/gerbil/hamster?

A
  • 1% BW / 10% blood volume
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13
Q

Locations for venipuncture in rats/mice/gerbils/hamsters

A
  • lateral tail vein (warm for vasodilation, avoid in gerbils to avoid sloughing)
  • lateral saphenous vein
  • cranial vena cava
  • ventral tail artery (can be used in rats, it runs just in the ventral midline but has a higher risk of haematoma - due to higher pressure as an artery
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14
Q

Ferret blood volume

A
  • 50-70ml/kg
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15
Q

Locations for ferret venipuncture

A
  • jugular vein (more lateral compared to cat)
  • cranial vena cava
    (- avoid the tail vein - very painful)
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16
Q

Locations for hedgehog venipuncture

A
  • cranial vena cava
  • jugular vein (hard to visualise due to thick skin, ramus of mandible and point of shoulder for landmarks)
  • femoral vein (inside hind leg as it runs across the stifle)
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17
Q

Method of cranial vena cava venipuncture

A
  • usually in many smaller species
  • potential for severe complications if performed incorrectly
  • in some species (e.g. GP, hedgehog) the heart lies very close to the sample site
  • thoracic pathology may change normal anatomy (radiograph 1st helps)
  • anaesthesia is essential
  • pt in dorsal recumbency, head extended, forelimbs retracted caudally
  • 25G, 0.5” needle
  • needle placed at the notch where 1st rib meets the manubrium
  • advance toward the contra-lateral hindlimb
  • approx 30 degree angle until blood flash
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18
Q

Reptile venopuncture

A
  • most veins aren’t visible, so use landmarks and feel
  • the lymphatic system is closely associated with blood vessels which may lead to contamination of blood samples (affects PCV and some biochem)
  • bp low and blood draws slowly
  • as with other spp, always do a fresh blood smear
  • may need to hospitalise and give fluid (e.g. reptoboost bath) to allow sampling
  • skin often heavily contaminated so ensure thorough skin prep
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19
Q

Reptile blood tubes

A
  • EDTA tends to haemolyse reptile RBCs
  • lithium heparin is anticoagulant of choice
  • 2 good quality fresh smears
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20
Q

Why is haematology usually perfumed manually in reptiles?

A
  • automated techniques are made difficult due to nucleated RBCs
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21
Q

Reptile circulating blood volume (& collection volume)

A
  • approx 5-8% BW
  • may collect up to 10% (i.e. 5-8ml/kg)
  • but many reptiles present in poor to very poor health and are often anaemic
  • therefore, often take 1/2 this amount
  • rarely require more than 2ml
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22
Q

Lizard venipuncture sites

A
  • ventral coccygeal vein
  • ventral abdominal vein
  • jugular vein
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23
Q

Ventral coccygeal vein sampling in lizards

A
  • most useful
  • entry approx 1/3rd down the tail to avoid hemipenes and anal glands
  • ventral or lateral approach may be used
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24
Q

Ventral abdominal vein sampling in lizards

A
  • may be visualised in some spp
  • difficult to prevent haematoma so use as small a needle as possible
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25
Q

jugular vein sampling in lizards

A
  • useful in large longer-necked spp e.g. Monitor lizards
  • blind approach along imaginary line from dorsal ear to shoulder
  • often quite superficial
  • risk of lymphatic contamination is lower at this site
  • potential damage to carotid artery and vagus nerve
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26
Q

Snake venipuncture sites

A
  • ventral coccygeal vein
  • heart
  • palatine veins
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27
Q

Ventral coccygeal vein sampling in snakes

A
  • similar approach to lizards
  • difficult in small snakes
  • tail end held in dorsal recumbency
28
Q

Heart blood sampling in snakes

A
  • dorsal recumbency
  • heart located visually, with doppler or US
  • stabilise heart between finger and thumb
  • needle central ventral midline at a 30 degree angle in a cranial direction (aim for caudal point of ventricle)
  • GA required
  • smallest possible needle
  • can’t use this method in lizards as can’t stabilise the heart like you can in snakes
  • taken directly from the ventricle
29
Q

Palatine vein sampling in snakes

A
  • prone to haematoma formation
  • large, anaesthetised snakes only
  • rarely used
30
Q

Chelonia venipuncture sites

A
  • jugular vein
  • sub-carapacial vein
  • dorsal coccygeal vein
31
Q

Jugular vein sampling in Chelonia

A
  • along line from dorsal ear scale to shoulder
  • tends to be superficial
  • visible in some spp
  • lymph contamination least likely
  • carotid artery deeper and more ventral
  • head extended to the side, or insert the needle parallel to the head
32
Q

Sub-carapacial vein sampling in Chelonia

A
  • entry point craniodorsal midline where skin joints carapace
  • aim for point at junction of 1st & 2nd vertebral scute on midline
  • may need to bend needle slightly
  • head may be retracted or extended (i.e doesn’t need to be extended out of the shell)
33
Q

Dorsal coccygeal vein sampling in Chelonia

A
  • often superficial
  • aim as far cranial as possible
  • often lymph contaminated
34
Q

Rabbit erythrocytes

A
  • anisocytosis and polychromasia is a common, normal finding
  • may be due to shorter erythrocyte lifespan (57-67d)
35
Q

Rabbit WBCs

A
  • heterophiles instead of neutrophils
  • heterophiles have granular cytoplasm and may be listen for eosinophils
  • basophils are present quite commonly
  • lymphocytes, eosinophils and monocytes similar to dog/cat
36
Q

Guinea pig blood cells

A
  • Kurloff cell = produced by the thymus under oestrogen stimulation, resembles lymphocyte with round to oval inclusion, thought to have a similar role to lymphocytes (producing antibodies, attacking unknown cells)
  • neutrophil most abundant cell
37
Q

Ferret blood cells

A
  • neutrophils: contain small, pale-red granules
  • eosinophil: granules rounded and bright red
  • generally have higher HCT, HB and RBC counts
  • WBCc generally quite low (3-4x10^9)
  • ferrets appear to have no blood groups
38
Q

reptile erythrocytes and thrombocytes

A
  • both cell types are nucleated
  • similar function to mammals
  • PCV 20-40% in most species
  • erythrocyte life span up to 800d in some spp
  • polychromasia and reticulocytosis low (<1%)
39
Q

Reptile heterophils

A
  • predominant cell type
  • equivalent to neutrophil
  • intracytoplapmic fusiform granules
  • increase in summer, decrease during hibernation
  • heterophobia = infection, inflammation, stress
  • heteropaenia = chronic stress/dz, severe infection
  • will show signs of toxic changes in response to severe illness (e.g. inflammatory dz that affects bone marrow)
40
Q

Reptile lymphocytes

A
  • morphology very similar to mammals
  • lymphocytes generally lowest in winter
  • lymphopaenia = malnutrition, stress, immunosuppression, poor husbandry
  • lymphocytosis = inflammation, parasitic & viral dz, wound healing, ecdysis
41
Q

Reptile eosinophils & basophils

A
  • similar morphology to mammals
  • eosinophils generally lower in summer
  • eosinophilia = parasites and inflammation
  • basophils minimal seasonal change
  • basophilia = parasitic & viral dz
42
Q

Reptile azurophils

A
  • unique to reptiles
  • similar to monocytes in mammals
  • red-purple cytoplasma
  • more common in snakes
  • inflammatory response and carry out phagocytosis
43
Q

Reptile monocytes & azurophils

A
  • reptiles also have monocytes, which are similar to those of mammals
  • monocytosis & azurophilia occur with inflammation and granulomatous dz
44
Q

Risk factors of avian venipuncture

A
  • veins are generally very superficial
  • veins are very fragile and prone to haematoma formation
  • post-sampling haemorrhage and haematoma formation is potentially life-threatening
45
Q

Circulating volume of birds and collection volume

A
  • approx 6-12% BW
  • can collect up to 10% of this (6-12ml/kg)
46
Q

Avian blood tubes

A
  • EDTA can haemolyse RBCs in some spp (esp corvids and waterfowl)
  • lithium heparin used for haem and biochem in small pts
  • always make 2 good quality fresh smears
47
Q

Why is haematology usually performed manually in birds?

A
  • automated techniques are made difficult due to nucleated RBCs
48
Q

What can inadequate and prolonged restraints cause in birds?

A
  • injury to pt
  • injury to handler
  • possibly fatal haemorrhage
  • stress
  • hyperthermia
49
Q

Sedation/GA with gas for avian venipuncture

A
  • probably less risk than physical restrain in sick or fractious birds
  • reduce haematoma formation by relieving stress and lowering bp
50
Q

Avian restraint for venipuncture

A
  • firmer pressure around the head and looser around the body -> reduces pressure around chest and middle
  • ensure wings are restrained against the body
  • for birds of prey (restraint is called casting), hoods can be useful, and ensure have restrained the legs/talons
51
Q

Sites for avian venipuncture

A
  • jugular vein
  • ulnar/basilic vein
  • medial metatarsal vein
52
Q

Jugular vein sampling in birds

A
  • large accessible vein
  • right jugular vein usually tends to be larger
  • can use in all spp
  • easily visualised in most without plucking feather
  • palpation and blind technique in some species (penguin, waterfowl, cranes)
  • can be difficult to prevent/stop haematoma
  • needle advanced cranial-caudal
53
Q

Ulnar/basilic vein sampling in birds

A
  • small samples in larger birds
  • potential to fracture wing if performed conscious
  • haematomas are common and can be severe
  • runs on the inside surface of the elbow
  • bird placed in dorsal recumbency
  • extend the wing
  • wing stabilised with thumb and forefinger
  • syringe rested on thumb and advanced into vein
54
Q

Medial metatarsal vein sampling in birds

A
  • lateral recumbency with lower limb extended caudally
  • easy to restrain in towel with feet out
  • limb held by assistant similarly to dog/cat
  • medial aspect, above or below joint
  • light pressure bandage easily placed to prevent haematoma
  • useful for poultry and waterfowl, usually visible in these spp without plucking feathers
  • as the area is heavily scaled haematoma formation is much more likely
55
Q

Avian cellular origins

A
  1. primary lymphoid organs: Bursa of Fabricius, the thymus
  2. secondary lymphoid organs: spleen, intestinal lymphoid tissue, bone marrow
56
Q

Avian thymus

A
  • located in the neck
  • consists of 3-8 flattened, pale pink lobes lying along the neck, close to the jugular vein
  • t-lymphocyte precursors are produced by stem cells in the embryonic yolk sac and bone marrow, and then develop into T-lymphocytes in the thymus
  • thymus decreases in size at sexual maturity
57
Q

Bursa of Fabricius

A
  • unique to birds
  • is a dorsal diverticulum in the proctodeum (the final part of the cloaca used for storage)
  • consists of folds of lymphoid tissue
  • stem cells in yolk sac produce B-lymphocyte precursors which then develop in the Bursa
  • subsequently seeds other lymphoid organs with B-cells
58
Q

Avian spleen

A
  • situated on right side of coelom between proventriculus and ventriculus
  • shape varies
  • not a blood reservoir so is relatively small
  • aged erythrocytes are phagocytosed
  • aids in lymphopoiesis and production of antibody
59
Q

Aivan erythrocytes

A
  • formed in bone marrow
  • nucleated
  • similar function to mammals
  • PCV = 35-55%
  • relatively short lifespan = 25-45d
  • blood loss replenished in days
  • cell size varies with spp
  • normal to find mild immature RBC numbers (mild polychromaisa and anisocytosis)
60
Q

Avian thrombocytes

A
  • similar to mammalian platelets
  • originate from stem cell not megakaryocytes
  • nucleated
  • phagocytic functions
  • clotting function weaker cf mammals
  • despite higher bp, clotting still works
61
Q

Avian heterophils

A
  • function similar to mammalian neutrophil
  • most abundant cell in most spp
  • round cells with lobed basophilic nucleus
  • prominent needle-shaped, oval or round cytoplasmic granules
  • cytoplasm is colourless
  • phagocytosis, bacteriocidal, roles in acute inflammation
  • heterophobia = stress, infection
  • heteropaenia = acute or severe inflammation, sepsis, viruses
62
Q

Avian eosinophils

A
  • normally present in low numbers
  • may be elevated with tissue damage and parasitic dz and possibly some viral infections
  • round cells, lobed basophilic nucleus
  • cytoplasm stains clear blue
  • granules are bright and tend to be round
63
Q

Avian basophils

A
  • slightly smaller than heterophils
  • clear cytoplasm, darker granules
  • nucleus non-lobed round to oval and often obscured by cytoplasmic granules
  • function unknown, possible involved in acute inflammation and hypersensitivity reactions
64
Q

Avian lymphocytes

A
  • similar morphology to mammals
  • large round nucleus with pale blue cytoplasm
  • variation in size and shape
  • lymphocytosis = excitement, leukaemia
  • lymphopaenia = chronic stress
65
Q

Avian monocytes

A
  • rare in healthy birds
  • similar morphology to mammals
  • largest leukocyte in a normal blood smear
  • little consistency in appearance
  • monocytosis = chronic inflammation/infection e.g. Psittacosis, tuberculosis, aspergillosis, egg coelomitis

Y4 exotics (9 decks)

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