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Y4 exotics > GI disease in avian and exotic species > Flashcards

GI disease in avian and exotic species Flashcards

1
Q

Reptile CE, cf dog

A
  • thin abdominal muscles so you can palate organs easily, transillumination sometimes possible (geckos)
  • head and mouth examination very important
  • faecal analysis is routine
  • look for MBD
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2
Q

Bird CE, cf dog

A
  • observe the bird 1st before handling
  • careful handling, don’t restrict rib cage
  • look at droppings in travel cage
  • limited coelomic palpation due to large ribcage
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3
Q

General clinical signs (same as other animals)

A
  • reduced appetite/anorexia/dysphagia
  • reduced faecal droppings / constipation
  • diarrhoea/tenesmus/undigested faeces
  • pain (e.g. changed posture)
  • lethargy/depression
  • weight loss
  • dehydration
  • haematochezia
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4
Q

General clinical signs (different to other animals)

A
  • enlarged crop (birds)
  • fluffed up (birds)
  • heat seeking (reptiles)
  • stomatitis (reptiles)
  • prolapses (reptiles)
  • body swelling (snakes)
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5
Q

Vomiting/regurgitation

A
  • vomiting only common in ferrets
  • vomiting and regurgitation aren’t a clinical sign seen in omnivorous rodents
  • regurgitation in reptiles is often husbandry related
  • regurgitation is very common in birds – it can be normal or indication of dz
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6
Q

Normal regurgitation in birds

A
  • courtship behaviour (male psittacines)
  • physiological cast formation (raptors)
  • crop milk feeding (pigeons)
  • fear, excitement (vultures, penguins)
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7
Q

Common GIT conditions in reptiles

A
  • husbandry causes
  • bacterial e.g. mycoplasma
  • viral e.g. herpes, inclusion body disease, adenovirus
  • endoparasites e.g. oxyurids, ascarids and strongyles
  • protozoa e.g. cryptosporidium, coccidia, trichomonas
  • neoplasia
  • impactions/obstruction e.g. dehydration, FB
  • prolapses
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8
Q

Reptile husbandry causes

A
  • inappropriate temperature (usually too cold / incorrect bulb type)
  • dehydration
  • inappropriate or excessive quantities of food
  • excessive handling after a meal (snakes)
  • ingestion of substrate and foreign material
  • overcrowding/mixing of species
  • poor hygiene
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9
Q

What do oxyurids commonly cause?

A
  • straining
  • eventual cloacal prolapse
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10
Q

Body distension/swellings in snakes can indicate

A
  • a recent meal
  • gravity
  • neoplasia
  • abscess
  • organomegaly
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11
Q

Cryptosporidium

A
  • protozoa affecting the stomach and SI
  • when the stomach is infected it causes V+, weight loss, hypertrophic gastritis
  • when the SI is affected it causes D+, passing undigested food and weight loss
  • very infectious and progressive in snakes & lizards, and is difficult to treat
  • no effective tx
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12
Q

Herpes virus

A
  • virus often involves multiple body systems (GI + resp signs)
  • clinical signs include necrotising stomatitis and enteritis
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13
Q

Inclusion body disease

A
  • arenavirus affecting snakes
  • spread by ectoparasites (mites)
  • boas = regurgitation, slow wasting and neurological signs
  • pythons = more rapid and acute death
  • don’t keep boas and pythons in the same collections because of this virus
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14
Q

Adenovirus

A
  • affects bearded dragons (usually juveniles)
  • causes anorexia, diarrhoea, wasting and neurological signs
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15
Q

Foreign bodies

A
  • commonly substrate impactions e.g. sand, corncob, wood chip
  • water gels designed for feeder insects
  • tortoises seem to deliberately ingest white objects
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16
Q

Liver disease

A
  • hepatitis due to toxins, fibrosis, neoplasia as well as viral, bacterial, fungal or protozoal infections
  • mild hepatic lipidosis can be considered normal (depending on age, species, sex, season of year) (don’t over-diagnose if mild, but severe is an issue)
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17
Q

What does pathological hepatic lipidosis often occur secondary to?

A
  • poor husbandry and diet
  • improper or lack of hibernation
  • bacterial infection
  • parasitism
  • NSHP
  • POOS
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18
Q

Common GIT conditions in birds

A
  • crop impactions and infections e.g. sour crop
  • FB/lower GI obstruction
  • systemic infection (e.g. viral)
  • endoparasites (esp backyard chickens)
  • dietary change (D+) or poor diet (e.g. hypovitaminosis A)
  • GIT infections/enteritis (e.g. bacterial, viral)
  • liver dz (e.g. hepatic lipidosis)
  • neoplasia
  • antibiotic overuse
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19
Q

Cause of abnormal regurgitation in birds

A
  • iatrogenic (medically induced)
  • organomegaly (puts pressure on the GIT and so can force food upwards)
  • infectious cause (e.g. bacterial, viral, parasitic, fungal)
  • obstructive GIT
  • crop stasis +/- infection
  • plants (yew, rhododendron, range of houseplants, avocado)
  • toxicity (e.g. lead, zinc, chocolate)
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20
Q

Crop stasis presents as

A
  • crop stasis and dilatation = clinical sign, not dz itself
  • regurgitation
  • delayed crop emptying
  • sour odour (due to stagnant fluid)
  • inappetence, dehydration, lethargy
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21
Q

Sour crop

A
  • can be a primary crop infection
  • most commonly crop stasis complicated by secondary bacterial and/or fungal infection
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22
Q

Normal crop fill

A
  • overnight: no eating
  • early morning: empty crop
  • daytime: eating
  • late afternoon: full crop
23
Q

D+ in birds

A
  • watery droppings are normal for some bird spp e.g. nectar feeders (e.g. lorries) and waterfowl
  • the consistency of the faecal component of the droppings is affected by the diet
  • dietary change may induce (temporary) D+
  • confirm that is is D+ and not polyuria
  • more often a systemic cause rather than bacterial gastroenteritis
24
Q

Haematochezia causes

A
  • causes can be from the cloaca itself or the GIT, uro tract or repro tract
  • egg-laying problems
  • cloacal papillomas or neoplasia or ulcers
  • infectious enteritis
  • heavy metal toxicity (kidneys)
25
Q

Cloacal prolapses

A
  • same principles for finding the cause of prolapse
  • cloacal prolapses are fairly common
  • rectal prolapse = due to enteritis, parasites etc
  • oviductal prolapse = in egg-laying females that strain excessively
26
Q

Stomatitis (definition, differentials) in birds

A

= inflammation or irritation of the mm in the mouth
- candida (yeast)
- bacterial
- capillariasis (endoparasite)
- trichomoniasis (flagellated protozoa)
- viral e.g. pox virus (wet form), pigeon herpesvirus
(- pox virus uncommon but possible in outdoor birds)

27
Q

Proventricular dilatation dz (PDD)

A
  • caused by a Bornavirus that mainly affects psittacine birds
  • doesn’t always cause clinical signs, birds can be carriers
  • inflammatory dz of the GI and neurological systems
  • the damaged nervous system doesn’t allow nutrients to be digested or absorbed
  • causes an increase in the size of the proventriculus
  • progressive, fatal condition
  • no known tx
    (- proventriculus = glandular part of the stomach just before the ventriculus [the mechanical part])
28
Q

Liver dz in birds

A
  • generally non-specific clinical signs
  • biliverdinuria is a strong indication of liver dz (green colouration of urate fractions of the excreta)
  • occasionally an enlarged liver can be palpated below the sternum
  • PD and V+ are sometimes associated with liver dz
29
Q

Common causes of liver dz in birds

A
  • bacteria (mycobacterium, chlamydiosis, salmonella)
  • viruses (polyomavirus, adenovirus)
  • protozoa (atoxaplasmosis, coccidia)
  • parasites (fluke, migrating nematodes)
  • toxins (mycotoxins, plants, chemicals)
  • hepatic lipidosis is very common in obese birds (high fat diet)
  • amyloidosis (due to long term inflammation)
  • neoplasia
30
Q

Diagnostic plan

A
  • location -> upper or lower GI? other organs involved?
  • infectious?
  • severity/prognosis?
  • diagnosis?
31
Q

Diagnostic options

A
  • haematology/biochem
  • imaging (radiography, CT, endoscopy, US)
  • crop and faecal cytology and bacteriology (C&ST)
  • PCR testing
  • histology and FNAs
  • ex-lap/coeliotomy
  • PM for flock/collection problems
32
Q

Radiography

A
  • can see FB, organ enlargement, tumours
  • contrast medium is very useful in birds and reptiles, can help identify obstructions and slow GI motility
33
Q

Haematology/biochem

A
  • can be used to detect some things e.g. inflammatory process/infection, organ damage (liver/kidney)
  • can be normal despite pathology of the GIT
  • can help determine severity and help stabilise e.g. dehydration
  • can detect what organs/systems are involved
  • pre-GA for imaging?
  • always do a fresh blood smear
34
Q

Faecal testing

A
  • flotation parasitology to look for endoparasites
  • gram stains +/- culture to look for bacterial causes (commensal?)
  • faecal PCR for specific pathogens such as bornavirus (PDD), chlamoydophila (Psittacosis, 3d pooled), crypto
35
Q

Mouth and crop testing

A
  • cytology/wet prep of oral lesions or crop fluid
  • trichomonas = motile flagellated organism (high power magnification), warming samples increases activity
  • candida = yeasts (low levels are normal)
36
Q

Diagnostics for liver dz

A
  • faecal examination (in birds might be green)
  • total body radiograph: enlarged liver? (trans-illuminaton in geckos)
  • haematology exam: PCV, WBC and differentiation, Buffy coat for parasites
  • biochemistry: total protein and albumin: globulin ratio
    – birds: GLDH, bile acids (AST, LDH)
    – reptiles: none, LDH/ALT/ALP/GGT all widely distributed
    – rabbits: GGT more specific than ALT and ALP
37
Q

Husbandry tx

A
  • correct deficiencies in husbandry and diet
  • temp
  • UV
  • ventilation
  • humidity
  • diet
  • supplements
  • good biosecurity (e.g. F10)
  • won’t immediately change dz but will increase over time and help with recovery
38
Q

Supportive care

A
  • analgesia (e.g. NSAID [meloxicam] and opioids)
  • fluids (oral, SC, IC, IV, IO)
  • warmth for all spp (specific POTZ for reptiles)
  • tube feeding birds and reptiles (high protein recovery diet)
  • liver supplements (lactulose, thyroxin, SAM-e, sylmarin, L-carnitine)
39
Q

Opioids in reptiles, birds, small mammals

A
  • reptiles: morphine (buprenorphine?)
  • birds: butorphanol
  • small mammals: buprenorphine
  • birds have more kappa than mu receptors therefore butorphanol a better opioid for analgesia
  • morphine is best for reptiles but is not often stocked in practice, so buprenorphine is the next best thing
40
Q

Drugs to tx specific underlying causes

A
  • injectable vitamins e.g. vitamin B/C appetite stimulant in reptiles
  • antibiotics e.g. TMPS, doxy (e.g. Chlamydophila), metronidazole, C&ST recommended
  • antifungals e.g. oral nystatin for sour crop, oral amphotericin B for avian gastric yeast, for prevention use apple cider vinegar in drinking water (5-20ml/L)
  • anthelmintics e.g. fenbendazole, ivermectin
  • antiprotozoal e.g. metronidazole (also an appetite stimulant in reptiles)
  • pro-kinetics e.g. metoclopramide (e.g. crop stasis)
  • H2 antagonists e.g. ranitidine or famotidine (ferret stomach ulcers)
41
Q

Drug cautions

A
  • ivermectin will kill Chelonia, safe for other spp when used appropriately
  • Metronidazole is used frequently for protozoal and bacteria infections in snakes, but kingsnakes and indigo snakes appear very sensitive to it (use lower doses if no alternatives)
42
Q

No tx recommended for

A
  • salmonella in reptiles (commensal)
  • cryptosporidium in reptiles (no effective tx, PTS to prevent suffering and spread)
  • PDD in birds (no effective tx)
  • with chickens there isn’t a licensed tx in a food producing animal (supportive tx only)
43
Q

Species differences with ‘normal’ bacteria

A
  • commensal bacteria of the oral cavity and cloaca in reptiles include Salmonella, E.coli, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Aeromonas and Citrobacter
  • these may also become pathogenic (often due to poor husbandry)
44
Q

Salmonella spp in reptiles

A
  • generally considered a harmless commensal of the GIT in reptiles (rarely pathogenic)
  • unsuccessful attempts to produce salmonella-free reptiles
  • potentially a significant zoonosis – but salmonella spp in reptiles is different to that which causes dz in humans, but can still potentially carry ‘zoonotic’ salmonella
  • don’t recommend tx, to prevent resistant strains
  • sensible to assume all reptiles are carriers
  • appropriate hygiene measures are important
45
Q

Surgery to tx specific underlying causes

A
  • FB/impaction removal (laxatives and enemas may work in selected cases to avoid surgery)
  • persistent or severe prolapses
  • surgical biopsies
  • endoscopic visualisation e.g. stomach ulcers, growths
46
Q

Nutritional support - starving

A
  • don’t starve exotic animals, with the exception or prior to a GA
  • birds: only for crop emptying (budgie ~1h, parrot ~3h)
  • reptiles: 24-72h but often not necessary (anorexic already)
  • very important to provide nutritional support to exotic animals with GI dz
47
Q

Parrot diet changes

A
  • long term seed-based diets can cause obesity, liver damage and nutritional deficiencies
  • make diet changes very slowly or use crop feeds whilst adapting to the new diet (6m-1y)
  • ‘Seed junkies’ need to be converted slowly or will suffer from hepatic lipidosis due to starvation which can kill them
48
Q

Medical prolapse tx in reptiles

A
  • if tissue is viable
  • analgesia (NSAID + opioid)
  • lubricate, sugar + lube can help reduce tissue swelling
  • gently replace the prolapse with cotton buds
  • correct underlying issue e.g. tx endoparasites
49
Q

Surgical prolapse tx in reptiles

A
  • cloacaplexy if medical tx hasn’t worked or if reoccurrence
  • hemipenes prolapses can be amputated
50
Q

Crop stasis tx in a parrot

A
  • crop flush for cytology/diagnostics
  • oral metoclopramide
  • anti-inflammatories if indicated
  • tx underlying cause(s)
  • antibiotics/antifungals if indicated by cytology
  • radiographs if chronic, obstructive or no response to tx, or if history makes you suspect FB
51
Q

Crop stasis tx in a pet chicken

A
  • restrict grass and free access to water
  • empty crop content using a tube and perform cytology/diagnostics
  • ingluviotomy if emptying not possible
  • anti-inflammatories if indicated
  • treat underlying cause(s)
  • antibiotics if indicated by cytology
  • apple cider vinegar in drinking water if yeasts
52
Q

Indications for an ingluviotomy

A
  • crop impaction
  • crop FB
  • crop tumour
  • crop burns/injuries
  • access to the rest of the GIT
53
Q

Ingluviotomy method

A
  • anaesthetise bird
  • intubate to prevent aspiration
  • pluck feathers
  • iodine scrub (no spirit)
  • elevate head
  • midline incision into the skin
  • midline incision into the crop
  • empty crop contents
  • close the crop with absorbable monofilament suture and atraumatic needle, use an inverting or appositional pattern
  • flush with warm sterile saline
  • inject saline into the crop to check for leakage along the suture line
  • skin closure using an appositional suture pattern and a monofilament suture material
54
Q
A

Y4 exotics (9 decks)

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