love and relationship

Question 1

why are some species more sociable than others? (3)

Answer 1

• can’t defend themselves against predators - rely on cooperative defense and competitors
• tend to produce offspring that take a long-time to rear so rely on cooperative of young by the group
• tend not to be able to hunt effectively on their own and rely on cooperative hunting

Question 2

how do human relationships relate to natural selection?

Answer 2

Individuals who formed close relationships with others more likely to survive, share resources and go on to reproduce

Question 3

why is social support important for humans?

Answer 3

Social support affects mental and physical health (Cohen and Wills, 1985)

Question 4

what are the main 4 positive outcomes of social support according to research?

Answer 4

• buffer stress - directly associated with health via biologically mediated pathways – reduce cortisol and improve neuroimmune responses
• improving health behaviours - having a larger social network led to earlier diagnosis and thus treatments
• compliance with meds
• instrumental support - immediate support ready

Question 5

what are the main two theories of love?

Answer 5

• STERNBERG’S (1986) TRIANGUAL THEORY OF LOVE
• THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF LOVE (Beall & Sternberg, 1995; Gregon & Gregon, 2003)

Question 6

theories of love: what is Sternberg’s Triangual Theory of Love?

Answer 6

• proposes there are 3 key components of love - intimacy (self-disclosure), passion (physical attraction) and commitment (loyalty to a partner)
• there are multiple ways that these components can interact to define multiple types of love

Question 7

theories of love: draw sternberg’s triangle theory of love

Answer 7

sheet

Question 8

theories of love: what is the ‘social construction of love’ ? ()

Answer 8

• Sternberg, Gregon&Gregon
• idea that definition of love differs between cultures and time
• supported by the fact that beauty/desirability is determined by culture and time

Question 9

what evidence is there that love is formed due to a biological addiction? (3)

Answer 9

Fisher, Aron, & Brown (2006) research:
- Ppt in love – brain activity measured whilst looking at pictures of a loved one
- Dopamine system activated – associated with anticipation of reward and attention – both aspects are involved in pleasure and addiction
- Love as a strong motivation and addictive craving of being with another person

Question 10

what are the 3 factors which influence a relationship forming?

Answer 10

proximity, familiarity, similarity

Question 11

what is the ‘Bogus Stranger Paradigm’?

Answer 11

• Byrne 1971
• research supporting the fact we like people who are similar to us
• ppt more likely to rate someone as more likable when researchers had matched their traits

Question 12

what is parental investment theory?

Answer 12

sex differences in mating can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy and risk to their own survival that males and females put into parenting vs mating – i.e less cost for men than women

Question 13

state some ‘attractive’ features according to psychological research

Answer 13

• Symmetrical faces are considered more attractive (Perrett et al., 1999)
• Female faces with high cheekbones and smooth skin – most sensitive indicator of high levels of oestrogen (Draelos, 2007; Gonzalez-Cantero, 2019)
• Male faces with a large jaw, prominent brow and high cheekbones – an indicator of high levels of testosterone (Penton-Voak, Ian and Chen, 2004)

Question 14

how does perceived attractiveness influence behaviour according to psychological research?

Answer 14

• ‘halo effect’ - attractive people judged as more intelligent and get higher grades
• attractive people tend to be more social - suggested to be due to reciprocating the positive responses from others rather than being born this way

Question 15

OD: what is choice paralysis?

Answer 15

choice paralysis - psychologists have suggested that online dating overwhelms us with options which means be avoid making decisions

Question 16

OD: research into choice paralysis in romantic relationships

Answer 16

 Fishman, Lyengar, Kamenica and Simonson (2006): Students attended a speed dating event that varied in size from 18 participants to 42 participants.
 As the size of the choice set increased, they said ‘yes’ to fewer potential partners.
 Women who attended speed-dating events at which they met a small number of men (9-14) were over 40% more likely to agree to a follow-up meeting than those who met a larger number of men (15-21)
 As choice increases, people end up being less satisfied with their ultimate partner choice and more prone to reverse their decision (D’Angelo & Toma, 2017)

Question 17

OD: what are some of the risks associated with online dating?

Answer 17

deception, objectification, ‘relationshopping’

Question 18

OD: research into self-presentation and deception in online relationships

Answer 18

o Toma, Hancock and Ellison (2008): compared users profiles with actual weight, height and age data with their online profile data.
 81% had lied about at least one of characteristics (age, height, weight)
 60% lied about weight, 40% about their height, 19% about their age.

Question 19

relationship formation: what is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 19

• Research suggests that we are drawn to people of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves
• People learn their position in the ‘attractiveness hierarchy’ via a feedback loop – basically ‘trial and error’ approach

Question 20

relationship formation: research into the matching hypothesis

Answer 20

Murstien (1972):
 Took photos of 100 faces of 50 real couples
 Group A were asked to rate each member of the couple on attractiveness.
 Group B were presented with the same pictures but in a randomised order.
 Results: Faces of real couples were consistently rated as more alike than faces randomly assigned into couples.
 So, evidence in favour of the matching hypothesis

Question 21

relationship formation: what’s self-disclosure?

Answer 21

self-disclosure = revealing information about oneself to another person is important in interpersonal relationships (Rubin, 1973)

Question 22

relationship formation: why is self-disclosure important in relationship formation?

Answer 22

• tend to share more with people who reciprocate SD, this is a fundamental aspect of forming and maintaining intimate relationships

Question 23

relationship formation: which theory emphasises the importance of arousal in relationship formation?

Answer 23

Three-factor theory of love (Hatfield and Walster, 1981)

Question 24

relationship formation: what’s the ‘three factor theory of love’?

Answer 24

Three-factor theory of love (Hatfield and Walster, 1981)
* A state of physiological arousal
* An appropriate label for that arousal (cultural influence)
* An appropriate love object

Question 25

relationship formation: describe the research which supports the ‘three factor theory’

Answer 25

Shaky bridge study:
* Male ppt crossed a bridge
* C1 – Shaky bridge: Capilano suspension bridge in North Vancouver (higher arousal)
* C2 - Safe and wide bridge (lower arousal condition)
* At the end of the bridge an attractive female experimenter waited who asked them to describe a set of pictures on a questionnaire (Thematic Appreciation Test)
* Found that the ‘Shaky bridge’ condition described the pictures in a far more sexual manner and were more likely to complement the experimenter and ask her out
* Suggested that perhaps the higher arousal of the dangerous bridge was attributed to a sense of attraction

Question 26

theories of relationships: what are the three main economic models of relationships?

Answer 26

SET theory, equity theory and investment theory

Question 27

relationship breakdown: what are the 4 characteristics of people’s behaviour in relationship breakdown according to Baxter?

Answer 27

Withdrawal/Avoidance
Manipulation
Positive-tone strategies
Open confrontation

Question 28

What is equity theory? (2)

Answer 28

Equity theory - theory on relationships which developed to challenge SET
It argues that maximising rewards/minimising costs is important, but SET fails to consider that most people need EQUITY in a relationship

Question 29

EQUITY THEORY: KEY POINTS (2)

Answer 29

• the role of equity
• equity vs equality

Question 30

EQUITY THEORY: the role of equity (3)

Answer 30

• equity = fairness
• Walster - what matter most with equity is that both partners’ level of profit is roughly the same
• inequity = over benefitting partner/under benefitting partner - leads to feeling of dissatisfaction, or guilt and shame

Question 31

EQUITY THEORY: why does this theory emphasise EQUITY rather than EQUALITY?

Answer 31

• According to equity theory, it is not the size or the amount of the rewards and costs that matters, it’s the ratio of the two to each other (the profit each party is receiving)
• Satisfying relationship are marked by negotiations to ensure equity, that rewards are distributed fairly (not necessarily equally) between the partners

Question 32

EQUITY THEORY: how does satisfaction play into this theory? (2)

Answer 32

• Satisfaction is all about perceived fairness
• Satisfying relationship are marked by negotiations to ensure equity, that rewards are distributed fairly (not necessarily equally) between the partners

Question 33

EQUITY THEORY: what are the consequences of inequity? (2)

Answer 33

• strong correlation between prolonged levels of inequity and distress (for over/under benefitted partner)
• changes in perceived equity (may have received a lot more at the start) - leads to dissatisfaction

Question 34

how may some deal with inequity?

Answer 34

Dealing with equity – the more unfair the relationship feels, the harder they will work to restore equity. Partners may try make a cognitive rather than a behavioural change –> What was seen as definitely a cost earlier (abuse, thoughtlessness) may be seen as a norm to make the relationship feel more balanced

Question 35

Briefly outline the equity theory into romantic relationships

Answer 35

Equity theory is an explanation of relationship maintenance based on motivation to achieve fairness and balance in a relationship and is an extension of social exchange theory. Equity is different to equality with equality meaning things are the same whereas equity is based on things being fair. Therefore, equity theory believes the amount an individual puts into a relationship should be the same as what they get out of a relationship. Inequity in a relationship, where a partner may feel they are putting in more than they are getting out which can lead to dissatisfaction. Equally, being over benefitted can lead to guilt and shame thus causing dissatisfaction. If inequity is recognised within the relationship, then an opportunity occurs to make adjustments in the relationship in order to realign equity. Realignment can be physical which might involve redistribution of chores around the house, or it could be cognitive which may involve changing the way of thinking about rewards and cost

Question 36

What is social exchange theory? (SET) (2)

Answer 36

• theory on how relationships form and develop
• a committed relationship is maintained when reward exceeds and potential alternatives are less rewarding than current relationship

Question 37

SET THEORY: how do rewards, costs and profits contribute to relationships? (3)

Answer 37

• Thibault and Kelley: behaviour is dictated by minimising losses and maximising gains (the minimax principle)
• satisfaction in a relationship is dictated by the profit it yields
• rewards/costs are subjective - but what may be seen as rewarding/costly in early stages, might be less so as time goes on

Question 38

SET THEORY: what is a comparison level? (3)

Answer 38

• comparison level - a method of measuring profit in a relationship based on what we think we deserve/social norms
• we consider a relationship to be worth perusing is the CL is high
• Comparison level of alternatives - theory predicts that we will stay in a current relationship only so long as we believe it’s more rewarding than alternatives, otherwise alternatives will start to look more attractive (Duck)

Question 39

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL: main assumptions of this model (4)

Answer 39

emphasises the importance of commitment
addresses the limitations of SET
Rasbult - commitment depends on 3 factors, satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives and investment size
commitment is seen as the main psychological factor that causes people to stay in romantic relationships – not satisfaction

Question 40

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL: satisfaction and comparison with alternatives (2)

Answer 40

SATISFACTION AND COMPARISON WITH ALTERNATIVES:
satisfying relationship is profitable = many rewards and few costs. Each partner is satisfied if they’re getting more out of the relationship than they expect based on previous experience/social norms.
Comparison with alternatives → partners ask themselves whether alternatives are more rewarding (alternatives - being single, or being with someone else)

Question 41

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL: Investment size (3)

Answer 41

INVESTMENT SIZE
‘Investment’ = extent/importance of resources associated with the relationship. An investment can be understood as anything we would lose if the relationshipended.
Rasbult defined two types - intrinsic (resources put directly into a relationship like money/energy) and extrinsic (resources that didn’t prev feature in the relationship but possessions bought together like children)

Question 42

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL:What does Rasbult predict would happen if all the criteria of ‘commitment’ are met?

Answer 42

if the partners in a relationship experience high levels of satisfaction and the alternatives are less attractive and the sizes of their investment are increasing, then we can confidently predict that the partners will be committed to the relationship e.g children, house etc

Question 43

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL: Why does Rasbult argue that commitment is more important than satisfaction? (2)

Answer 43

commitment is the main psychological factor causing people to stay in relationships - if it was satisfaction why would dissatisfied partners stay in a relationship?
(abused women shelter research)
People are committed as they don’t want to see effort go to waste, or lose investments made - people may work hard to maintain relationships especially in rough patches

Question 44

RASBULT’S INVESTMENT MODEL:What are relationship maintenance mechanisms? (2)

Answer 44

commitment which expresses itself in everyday behaviours e.g people accommodate to promote the relationship, or show forgiveness to put partner’s needs first
cognitive element to maintenance - may be unrealistically positive about their partner, or overly negative about alternatives - much more so than less committed partners (link to Rasbult and Martz research)