Locomotor Flashcards
Use anatomical terms to correctly describe the position or orientation of parts of the body.
○ Abaxial – away from longitudinal axis
○ Axial – towards longitudinal axis
○ Palmer – rear surface of forepaw
○ Plantar – rear surface of hind paw
○ Medial – towards median plane
○ Lateral – away from median plane
○ Rostral – towards nose
○ Cranial – towards head
○ Caudal – towards tail
○ Distal – away from body
○ Proximal – closer to body
○ Dorsal – towards the spine/top (up)
○ Ventral – towards the tummy/ground (down)
Use appropriate terminology to describe the view of an Anatomical Terminology photograph or medical image (e.g. X ray, CT scan).
○ Median/Mid-sagittal – symmetrical left & right
○ Sagittal/parasagittal/paramedian – unsymmetrical left & right
○ Transverse – divides cranial/caudal OR distal/proximal (cross section)
Describe how bipedal and quadrupedal animals are adapted for posture and movement.
○ Quadrupeds
§ Stability (large base of support)
§ Differentiate function (forelimbs manoeuvrability, hindlimbs power)
○ Bipedal
§ Free thoracic forelimbs (flight, prehension, brachiation)
○ Large feet (wide base of support)
Explain major similarities and differences in body form between bipeds and quadrupeds.
○ Quadrupeds
§ Elbows & knees oppositely orientated (homologous joints)
§ Larger proximal mass & springier in hindlimb
§ Forelimb uprightness
○ Bipedal
§ Walking – long HL & short FL, plantigrade, upright spine (centre of mass)
§ Jumping – crouched limbs, proximal muscle mass, thin distal limbs
§ Flight – HL perch body weight & catch prey, FL wings
Discuss anatomical adaptations of animals for specific functions.
○ Cheetah (Carnivore) – powerful psoas muscles, HL bone long (longer strides)
○ Horse (Ungulate) – long limbs (long distance), distal limb low mass (stride rate), limb elongation (stride length)
○ Capybara (Rodent) – HL soleus muscle for water propulsion, semi aquatic
What the major patterns and processes in evolution are
○ Patterns
§ Anagenesis – gradual linear transformation of 1 species into another
§ Cladogenesis – rapid branching of species (2+ spit at each node)
○ Processes
§ Sources of variation (prodigy produced)
□ Mutation, recombination, phenotypic plasticity & constraints
§ Modifiers of variation (next gen prodigy)
○ Natura selection, sexual selection, genetic drift
How a phylogeny is used
○ Diversification of lineages through evolution
○ Computer algorithms find pattern (phylogeny) that represents best estimate of evolutionary patterns
○ Shared novel traits (not primitive traits)
○ Track pattern of trait evolution at any scale
○ Test convergent evolution
What adaptation is, and what about evolution is non-adaptive
○ A trait that enhances fitness and that arose historically as a result of natural selection for its current biological role.
○ Key innovators lead to adaptive radiation (explosion of speciation at a lineage) = phenotypical & ecological diversification
○ Non-adaptive forces are primarily random & not influenced by environment (mutation, genetic drift, and recombination)
Why evolution is relevant to vet students
○ host parasite, drug disease arms races
○ phylogeny similarity - similar treatments work better on closely related species
○ Harnessed by humans for breeding artificial selection (health problems arise when animal experience environments they did not evolve in)
Classify bone according to shape (e.g. long bones, flat bones), and giving examples explain how shape relates to function.
Long - Cylinder (longer than wide), Leverage, e.g. Femur, tibia, fibula
Short - Cube (approx. equal lengths), Stability, support & some motion, e.g. Carpels & tarsals
Flat - Thin and curved, Points for muscle attachment & protect internal organs e.g. Ribs, cranial bones
Irregular - Complex shapes, Protect internal organs, Vertebrae & facial bones
Sesamoid - Small & round (embedded in tendons), Protect tendons from compressive forces, e.g. Patellae
Describe the macroscopic architecture of bone and explain how this organisation relates to function
○ Periosteum – thin layer of connective tissue lining outside of bone
○ Cartilage – flexible material at bone edges to absorb impact
○ Epiphysis – next to cartilage at bone end, houses red bone marrow (RBC produced)
○ Epiphysis plate – next to epiphysis, extra bone produced to elongate pre-puberty
○ Metaphysis – contain epiphysis plate, expands neck region
○ Diaphysis – in main bone shaft, house bone marrow, site of ossification
Recount the anatomical relationship between bone and peri- and endosteum. Describe the functions of these tissues.
○ bone is an organ and therefore subject to continual adaptation processes.
○ Bone Function
§ Cortical (compact) bone – thick, dense & stiff
§ Trabecular (spongy) bone – cobweb, less dense , handle loads in loco
○ Periosteum/Endosteum Function
§ Peri – blood supply, bone rescaling & maintenance, lines outside
○ Endo – lines inside cavity in long bones outside the medullary cavity
(part 1) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system
○ Gross Skeletal Muscle Structure
§ Origin – where muscle directly attaches to bone (top)
§ Muscle belly – thick fleshy central part & tapers at each end (proximal)
§ Connective tissues – between muscle fibres
§ Tendon – attaches muscle to bone in insertion site (distal)
§ Aponeurosis – bridge between muscle/tendon
○ Insertion – site on bone where tendon attaches
(part 2) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system
○ Skeletal Muscle Arrangement (striated)
§ Aponeurosis – bridge between muscle/bone OR muscle/tendon
§ Epimysium – thin connective tissue that binds muscle belly together
§ Muscle belly – thick fleshy central part & tapers at each end
§ Perimysium – connective tissue binding each fascicle
§ Fascicle – bundle of muscle fibre subunits
§ Endomysium – surround muscle fibres
§ Sarcolemma – cell membrane around muscle fibres
§ Muscle fibre – primary muscle cell unit
□ Sarcomas – series of myofilaments between z lines
□ Myofibril – multiple peripheral nuclei
○ Contractor proteins – actin & myosin
(part 3) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system
Tendon Structure
○ Proximal – short & fat
○ Distal – long & thin
○ Triple helix - 3 polypeptide chains
○ Collagen fibril – multiple triple helices
○ Collagen fibre – multiple fibrils
○ Subfascicles – multiple fibres
Discuss the roles/functions of muscle in the body and particularly in locomotion & compare and contrast the structure of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle
○ Muscle roles
§ Tendon – minimise distal limb mass, elastic energy storage, direct join
muscle power to bone
§ Skeletal – joint movement & stabilisation, posture control, shivering
§ Smooth – mastication, swallowing, digestion, birthing, dilation/constriction
§ Cardiac – maintain cardiac rhythm
○ Muscle Structure
§ Tendon – triple helix strands creating collaged fibres
§ Skeletal – myofibril fibres containing contractor proteins actin & myosin
(striated)
§ Smooth – un-striated, involuntary, long spindle-shaped cells, surrounding
connective tissue bind cells into sheets/layers
○ Cardiac – striated & cylindrical, involuntary, cells branch & create fibrous network
Explain how tendon contributes to locomotion
○ Tendon springs – store & release elastic energy = economical distal limb
○ Power amplifiers – stretched tendon recoils faster than muscle = higher power output
○ Minimise distal limb mass (horses) – swing efficiently
○ Joins muscle direct to bone – muscle forces transmit to skeleton efficiently
Describe muscle architectural design and explain how this influences muscle function
○ Pennate muscles
§ feather-like fibre arrangement
§ short fibres orientated towards muscle axis
§ able to pack in more sarcomere contractile units = increase muscle PCSA &
force (economical)
§ e.g. serratus ventralis – attaches scapula to trunk
○ Parallel muscles
§ Fibres run directly parallel to muscle axis
§ More sarcomeres in series = higher muscle fibre shortening
§ Moves joints in a greater range of motion
§ E.g. pectoral muscle – retract limb
Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint and the tissues of which a synovial joint is composed & explain how joint tissue and structure facilitate effective joint function
○ Ligament – stabilise joint (outside & inside joint)
○ Joint cavity – synovial fluid filled space that surrounds whole joint & separates the two bones
○ Fibrous tissue layer – protects joint cavity
○ Synovial membrane – lines joint cavity & secretes synovial fluid
○ Synovial fluid – lubricates joint & provides nutrition for hyaline articular cartilage ends of the bones
○ Articular hyaline cartilage – bone interface at synovial joint, low friction, no nerves/blood vessels
○ Menisci – increase range of movement & shock absorbers (2 in stifle joint)
○ Bursae – synovial fluid sacs (found in other joint types), reduce friction
Classify synovial joints according to their action. Give examples of types of synovial joints in the body.
Planar - Gliding, Slide bony surface over another, Between rows of carpal/tarsal bones
Hinge - Uniaxial, Movement in 1 plane, Humeroulnar
Pivot - Uniaxial, Peg in ring (rotation), Atlantoaxial joint
Condylar - Biaxial, Convex surface sitting on concave surface, Tarsus/hock & femorotibial (stifle)
Saddle - Biaxial, Convex & concave surfaces @ right angle, Distal interphalangeal (dog claw flex & extend)
Ball & Socket - Triaxial, Big movement range, Hip and shoulder
List the molecular components of the Extracellular Matrix (ECM) and discuss their structural and mechanical properties.
○ Network of secreted macromolecules – maintains integrity, protection, cell communication
○ Elastin – allows deformation, coiled when relaxed, cross linked when stretched
○ Collagen – triple helix = high tensile strength (microfibrils –> fibrils –> fibres)
○ Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) – anti-compressive hydrophilic, lubricant e.g. synovial fluid
○ Proteoglycans = Gag + protein, anti-compressive e.g. keratin sulfate & chondroitin sulfate
Describe and compare the macro and microscopic structure of different musculoskeletal tissues (bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage, muscle).
○ Bone, tendon, muscle, ligament see previous answers
○ Cartilage structure
§ Superficial tangential zone = 85% collagen to resist tension by shearing
§ Middle transitional zone = mostly proteoglycans, oblique arranged collagen,
transition from shearing to compressive forces
○ Deep radial zone = collagen fibres vertical to resist compression forces