Locomotor Flashcards

1
Q

Use anatomical terms to correctly describe the position or orientation of parts of the body.

A

○ Abaxial – away from longitudinal axis
○ Axial – towards longitudinal axis

○ Palmer – rear surface of forepaw
○ Plantar – rear surface of hind paw

○ Medial – towards median plane
○ Lateral – away from median plane

○ Rostral – towards nose
○ Cranial – towards head
○ Caudal – towards tail

○ Distal – away from body
○ Proximal – closer to body

○ Dorsal – towards the spine/top (up)
○ Ventral – towards the tummy/ground (down)

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2
Q

Use appropriate terminology to describe the view of an Anatomical Terminology photograph or medical image (e.g. X ray, CT scan).

A

○ Median/Mid-sagittal – symmetrical left & right

○ Sagittal/parasagittal/paramedian – unsymmetrical left & right

○ Transverse – divides cranial/caudal OR distal/proximal (cross section)

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3
Q

Describe how bipedal and quadrupedal animals are adapted for posture and movement.

A

○ Quadrupeds
§ Stability (large base of support)
§ Differentiate function (forelimbs manoeuvrability, hindlimbs power)

○ Bipedal
§ Free thoracic forelimbs (flight, prehension, brachiation)
○ Large feet (wide base of support)

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4
Q

Explain major similarities and differences in body form between bipeds and quadrupeds.

A

○ Quadrupeds
§ Elbows & knees oppositely orientated (homologous joints)
§ Larger proximal mass & springier in hindlimb
§ Forelimb uprightness

○ Bipedal
§ Walking – long HL & short FL, plantigrade, upright spine (centre of mass)
§ Jumping – crouched limbs, proximal muscle mass, thin distal limbs
§ Flight – HL perch body weight & catch prey, FL wings

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5
Q

Discuss anatomical adaptations of animals for specific functions.

A

○ Cheetah (Carnivore) – powerful psoas muscles, HL bone long (longer strides)

○ Horse (Ungulate) – long limbs (long distance), distal limb low mass (stride rate), limb elongation (stride length)

○ Capybara (Rodent) – HL soleus muscle for water propulsion, semi aquatic

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6
Q

What the major patterns and processes in evolution are

A

○ Patterns
§ Anagenesis – gradual linear transformation of 1 species into another
§ Cladogenesis – rapid branching of species (2+ spit at each node)

○ Processes
§ Sources of variation (prodigy produced)
□ Mutation, recombination, phenotypic plasticity & constraints
§ Modifiers of variation (next gen prodigy)
○ Natura selection, sexual selection, genetic drift

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7
Q

How a phylogeny is used

A

○ Diversification of lineages through evolution

○ Computer algorithms find pattern (phylogeny) that represents best estimate of evolutionary patterns

○ Shared novel traits (not primitive traits)

○ Track pattern of trait evolution at any scale

○ Test convergent evolution

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8
Q

What adaptation is, and what about evolution is non-adaptive

A

○ A trait that enhances fitness and that arose historically as a result of natural selection for its current biological role.

○ Key innovators lead to adaptive radiation (explosion of speciation at a lineage) = phenotypical & ecological diversification

○ Non-adaptive forces are primarily random & not influenced by environment (mutation, genetic drift, and recombination)

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9
Q

Why evolution is relevant to vet students

A

○ host parasite, drug disease arms races

○ phylogeny similarity - similar treatments work better on closely related species

○ Harnessed by humans for breeding artificial selection (health problems arise when animal experience environments they did not evolve in)

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10
Q

Classify bone according to shape (e.g. long bones, flat bones), and giving examples explain how shape relates to function.

A

Long - Cylinder (longer than wide), Leverage, e.g. Femur, tibia, fibula

Short - Cube (approx. equal lengths), Stability, support & some motion, e.g. Carpels & tarsals

Flat - Thin and curved, Points for muscle attachment & protect internal organs e.g. Ribs, cranial bones

Irregular - Complex shapes, Protect internal organs, Vertebrae & facial bones

Sesamoid - Small & round (embedded in tendons), Protect tendons from compressive forces, e.g. Patellae

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11
Q

Describe the macroscopic architecture of bone and explain how this organisation relates to function

A

○ Periosteum – thin layer of connective tissue lining outside of bone

○ Cartilage – flexible material at bone edges to absorb impact

○ Epiphysis – next to cartilage at bone end, houses red bone marrow (RBC produced)

○ Epiphysis plate – next to epiphysis, extra bone produced to elongate pre-puberty

○ Metaphysis – contain epiphysis plate, expands neck region

○ Diaphysis – in main bone shaft, house bone marrow, site of ossification

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12
Q

Recount the anatomical relationship between bone and peri- and endosteum. Describe the functions of these tissues.

A

○ bone is an organ and therefore subject to continual adaptation processes.

○ Bone Function
§ Cortical (compact) bone – thick, dense & stiff
§ Trabecular (spongy) bone – cobweb, less dense , handle loads in loco

○ Periosteum/Endosteum Function
§ Peri – blood supply, bone rescaling & maintenance, lines outside
○ Endo – lines inside cavity in long bones outside the medullary cavity

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13
Q

(part 1) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system

A

○ Gross Skeletal Muscle Structure
§ Origin – where muscle directly attaches to bone (top)
§ Muscle belly – thick fleshy central part & tapers at each end (proximal)
§ Connective tissues – between muscle fibres
§ Tendon – attaches muscle to bone in insertion site (distal)
§ Aponeurosis – bridge between muscle/tendon
○ Insertion – site on bone where tendon attaches

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14
Q

(part 2) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system

A

○ Skeletal Muscle Arrangement (striated)
§ Aponeurosis – bridge between muscle/bone OR muscle/tendon
§ Epimysium – thin connective tissue that binds muscle belly together
§ Muscle belly – thick fleshy central part & tapers at each end
§ Perimysium – connective tissue binding each fascicle
§ Fascicle – bundle of muscle fibre subunits
§ Endomysium – surround muscle fibres
§ Sarcolemma – cell membrane around muscle fibres
§ Muscle fibre – primary muscle cell unit
□ Sarcomas – series of myofilaments between z lines
□ Myofibril – multiple peripheral nuclei
○ Contractor proteins – actin & myosin

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15
Q

(part 3) Describe gross skeletal muscle and tendon structure and how muscle and tendon are arranged in the locomotor system

A

Tendon Structure
○ Proximal – short & fat
○ Distal – long & thin

○ Triple helix - 3 polypeptide chains
○ Collagen fibril – multiple triple helices
○ Collagen fibre – multiple fibrils
○ Subfascicles – multiple fibres

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16
Q

Discuss the roles/functions of muscle in the body and particularly in locomotion & compare and contrast the structure of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle

A

○ Muscle roles
§ Tendon – minimise distal limb mass, elastic energy storage, direct join
muscle power to bone
§ Skeletal – joint movement & stabilisation, posture control, shivering
§ Smooth – mastication, swallowing, digestion, birthing, dilation/constriction
§ Cardiac – maintain cardiac rhythm

○ Muscle Structure
§ Tendon – triple helix strands creating collaged fibres
§ Skeletal – myofibril fibres containing contractor proteins actin & myosin
(striated)
§ Smooth – un-striated, involuntary, long spindle-shaped cells, surrounding
connective tissue bind cells into sheets/layers
○ Cardiac – striated & cylindrical, involuntary, cells branch & create fibrous network

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17
Q

Explain how tendon contributes to locomotion

A

○ Tendon springs – store & release elastic energy = economical distal limb

○ Power amplifiers – stretched tendon recoils faster than muscle = higher power output

○ Minimise distal limb mass (horses) – swing efficiently

○ Joins muscle direct to bone – muscle forces transmit to skeleton efficiently

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18
Q

Describe muscle architectural design and explain how this influences muscle function

A

○ Pennate muscles
§ feather-like fibre arrangement
§ short fibres orientated towards muscle axis
§ able to pack in more sarcomere contractile units = increase muscle PCSA &
force (economical)
§ e.g. serratus ventralis – attaches scapula to trunk

○ Parallel muscles
§ Fibres run directly parallel to muscle axis
§ More sarcomeres in series = higher muscle fibre shortening
§ Moves joints in a greater range of motion
§ E.g. pectoral muscle – retract limb

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19
Q

Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint and the tissues of which a synovial joint is composed & explain how joint tissue and structure facilitate effective joint function

A

○ Ligament – stabilise joint (outside & inside joint)

○ Joint cavity – synovial fluid filled space that surrounds whole joint & separates the two bones

○ Fibrous tissue layer – protects joint cavity

○ Synovial membrane – lines joint cavity & secretes synovial fluid

○ Synovial fluid – lubricates joint & provides nutrition for hyaline articular cartilage ends of the bones

○ Articular hyaline cartilage – bone interface at synovial joint, low friction, no nerves/blood vessels

○ Menisci – increase range of movement & shock absorbers (2 in stifle joint)

○ Bursae – synovial fluid sacs (found in other joint types), reduce friction

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20
Q

Classify synovial joints according to their action. Give examples of types of synovial joints in the body.

A

Planar - Gliding, Slide bony surface over another, Between rows of carpal/tarsal bones

Hinge - Uniaxial, Movement in 1 plane, Humeroulnar

Pivot - Uniaxial, Peg in ring (rotation), Atlantoaxial joint

Condylar - Biaxial, Convex surface sitting on concave surface, Tarsus/hock & femorotibial (stifle)

Saddle - Biaxial, Convex & concave surfaces @ right angle, Distal interphalangeal (dog claw flex & extend)

Ball & Socket - Triaxial, Big movement range, Hip and shoulder

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21
Q

List the molecular components of the Extracellular Matrix (ECM) and discuss their structural and mechanical properties.

A

○ Network of secreted macromolecules – maintains integrity, protection, cell communication

○ Elastin – allows deformation, coiled when relaxed, cross linked when stretched

○ Collagen – triple helix = high tensile strength (microfibrils –> fibrils –> fibres)

○ Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) – anti-compressive hydrophilic, lubricant e.g. synovial fluid

○ Proteoglycans = Gag + protein, anti-compressive e.g. keratin sulfate & chondroitin sulfate

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22
Q

Describe and compare the macro and microscopic structure of different musculoskeletal tissues (bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage, muscle).

A

○ Bone, tendon, muscle, ligament see previous answers

○ Cartilage structure
§ Superficial tangential zone = 85% collagen to resist tension by shearing
§ Middle transitional zone = mostly proteoglycans, oblique arranged collagen,
transition from shearing to compressive forces
○ Deep radial zone = collagen fibres vertical to resist compression forces

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23
Q

Explain how the gross structure and molecular and cellular composition of musculoskeletal tissues relate to their function and mechanical properties.

A

○ Cell types (blasts, clasts & cytes) & functions
§ Tendon (TENO) = store & release elastic energy, economical locomotion
§ Ligaments (FIBRO) = stabilise joints
§ Cartilage (CHONDRO) = mechanical joint loading, resist tension produced
by shearing
§ Bone (OSTEO) = cytes support/maintain structure, blasts synthesise matrix,
clasts absorb bone

○ Cellular composition
§ Tendon – collagen type 1 (86%), proteoglycan (15%), elastin (2%), water
§ Ligament – collagen type 1 (75%), proteoglycan (15+%)
§ Cartilage – collagen type 2 (90%), proteoglycan (10-20%), water (68%)
○ Bone – collagen type 1 (90% of 30% organic component), hydroxyapetite
(organic)

24
Q

Describe the influence of mechanical loading on ECM turnover and tissue adaptation processes.

A

○ ECM constant turn over due to mechanical loading
§ - cytes = transmits forces to cells
§ – blasts = experience force & build more tissue or will signal
§ – clasts = receive signal & produce response

○ Tissue adaptation
§ Mesenchymal cells – undifferentiated stem cells
§ Cells differentiate under mechanical loads
§ Tendons & ligaments – pulled unidirectional
○ Cartilage – compressed one side & pulled the other (omnidirectional)

25
Q

Specify the cellular and molecular composition of bone tissue

A

○ Osteocytes = support/maintain structure

○ Osteoblasts = synthesise matrix

○ Osteoclasts = absorb bone

26
Q

Describe the process of bone formation in the developing animal

A

○ Intramembranous ossification
§ Flat bone – osteoblasts lay down between 2 layers of fibrous connective
tissue with no cartilage template

○ Endochondral ossification
§ Bone collar formation around hyaline cartilage model
§ Primary ossification centre in diaphysis bone region
□ Mesenchymal tissue excrete pre-mineralised ECM (osteoid) = bone
precursor tissue
§ Cartilage replaced with bone via osteoblasts & extends to bone edges
§ Secondary centre of ossification at epiphysis region
§ Osteoclasts remove bone rom centre of diaphysis to form medullary cavity
○ Artery invasion & blood vessel formation (vascularise tissue)

27
Q

Describe the process of bone growth in the young animal

A

○ Epiphysial growth plate allows bone to lengthen while animal grows

○ LHS EGP high number of chondrocytes

○ Cells increase in number & size (hypertrophy) & elongates from LHS across diaphysis region

○ Final size – EGP becomes a line & changes function

28
Q

Discuss nutritional and hormonal factors that can affect bone growth

A

○ Nutritional factors
§ Dietary calcium & phosphate salts
§ E.g. Vitamin A, B12, C, D, K
§ Absorption depends on calcitriol (hormone in vitamin D presence)

○ Hormonal factors
§ Calcitonin & parathyroid hormone calcium = regulate metabolism
§ Insulin, growth hormone & thyroxine = bone growth
○ Oestrogen = growth plate closure & osteoblast activity (ossify cartilage)

29
Q

Describe the process of bone remodelling and explain why it occurs

A

○ Cyclical process
§ Osteoclasts form & attach to bone matrix
§ Reabsorption - osteoclasts secrete breaking bone down enzyme &
apoptose themselves
§ Reversal – area is populated by osteoblasts
§ Formation – osteoblasts synthesise organic matrix & regulate its
mineralisation, entomb selves into matrix = become osteocytes
§ Forms lamellar bone (strong & slow production) or woven bone (weak &
rapid production)

○ Why it occurs
§ Maintains mechanical strength from microfractures
○ Mineral homeostasis – stores calcium & phosphorus

30
Q

Discuss the trade-offs between locomotor performance and risk of injury.

A

○ Performance – HL muscle mass, thick long tendons, fast twitch, anaerobic resp, remodelling (support load change)

○ Risk of injury – traumatic single event or repetitive cyclic stress, micro-ruptures to bone fractures

31
Q

Discuss the relationships among loading, use/disuse, tissue damage and repair, and how disruption of the balance among these leads to injury.

A

○ Loading – overloading stress from a traumatic event overcomes safety factor of structure

○ Repetitive use – cyclic stress induced damage overcomes adjustment/repair capacity

○ Tissue damage & repair – woven bone (quick & weak)

32
Q

Explain the concept of safety factors, and why some structures have lower safety factors than others.

A

○ Safety factor - limb bones have a capacity to withstand greater loads than they usually experience

○ Lower/higher factors depend on the kind of mechanical load placed upon them

33
Q

Describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in muscle contraction.

A

○ Calcium ions diffuse from sarcoplasmic reticulum into myofibrils

○ Calcium binds to troponin molecule & changes shape

○ Myosin-binding site on actin now free for ADP + P head

○ Actin & myosin filaments slide over each other

○ cross-bridges form between heads of actin & myosin filaments

○ cross-bridges swing through an arc (pull thin filament past thick ones) = sarcomere shortens

○ binding of ATP onto myosin head = cross-bridges detach from thin filament
release of energy allows myosin head to reattach further away (move back)

34
Q

Describe why skeletal muscle contraction requires energy, and discuss possible sources of this energy.

A

○ energy needed to produce contractions
○ energy sources
§ 1. Phosphorylation of ADP by creaine phosphate (short duration only)
§ 2. Phosphorylation of ADP in cytosol (anaerobic) (2ATP for every glucose)
○ 3. Oxidative phosphorylation of ADP in mitochondria (aerobic) (34 ATP)

35
Q

Compare the properties of the main types of skeletal muscle fibre.

A

○ Slow oxidative muscle cells (type 1)
§ Weaker than faster muscle cells but are fatigue resistant
§ Use aerobic respiration (high oxidative capacity)
§ Contract & twitch slower, but sustain forces for a longer duration

○ Fast glycolytic (Type IIb)
§ Twitch very quickly (high ATPase activity)
§ ATP responsible for causing the muscle myosin head to reset
(quicker reset = twitch/move quicker)
§ Good at producing glycolysis (high glycolytic pathway)
§ Large, strong, high force, run out of energy quickly

○ Fast oxidative glycolytic
§ Uses oxidative & glycolytic pathways
§ quicker than type 1 but slower than type2b
§ Decent capacity for oxidative phosphorylation & glycolytic pathway
(aerobic & anaerobic)

36
Q

Name and describe the types of muscle contraction and give examples of when each might be used in a standing or moving animal.

A

○ Isometric – muscle contract (not shorten) e.g. horse standing stationary

○ Concentric – force exceeds load e.g. pick up leg

○ Eccentric – load exceeds force e.g. place leg back down

37
Q

Recall the basic layout of the nervous system

A

○ 1. Central (CNS)
§ Brain & spinal cord

○ 2. Peripheral (PNS)
§ Efferent (Motor) - outgoing signals, trigger muscles to contract
□ Somatic (Skeletal muscle) - aware of
□ Autonomic (Cardiac/ smooth muscle, exocrine glands)
§ Afferent (Sensory)
□ Somatic (awareness of)
○ Visceral (unaware of)

38
Q

Describe the structure of a neuromuscular junction

A
  1. Axon - of motor neuron w/ myelin sheath
  2. Axon terminal – where axon ends & bulb begins
  3. Pre-Synaptic bulb – contains terminal buttons, voltage-gated calcium channels and vesicles of neurotransmitters
  4. Synaptic cleft – gap where neurotransmitter is released into
  5. Motor end plate – neurotransmitter gated channels, voltage gated potassium channels, acetylcholinesterase
39
Q

(part 1) Discuss the basic mechanism of synaptic communication and the events at a NMJ that lead to an action potential in a skeletal muscle fibre

A

○ Pre-synaptic axon
o An action protentional (voltage) will come down motor neuron axon
o The action potential jumps down axon due to insulated myelin sheaths
o Reaches axon terminal
· Voltage-gated calcium channels
· Action potential triggers calcium channel proteins to reconfigure &
allow calcium to enter from extracellular matrix into the axon
· Calcium in axon will bond to proteins as it moves to the internal
surface of the axon terminal membrane (towards synapse)
· Calcium & proteins grab vesicles & fuse the vesicles to the membrane
& release their contents into the synaptic gap in high density

○ Synaptic gap
· Passive stage - waiting for red acetylcholine molecules within the vesicles
to float down & interact with sarcolemma
§ Importance of large surface area & a short gap - diffusion
distance across does slow it down

○ Fast animal movements = short gap, many acetylcholine molecules released, large surface area & many receptors to receive the acetylcholine

40
Q

(part 2) Discuss the basic mechanism of synaptic communication and the events at a NMJ that lead to an action potential in a skeletal muscle fibre

A

○ Post-synaptic
· Acetylcholine bonds to ligand-gated channels (respond to interaction with
other molecules)
· Ligand-gated channels allows
§ large amounts of sodium into the muscle cells
§ Small amounts of potassium out of muscle cells
· After sodium enters the cells, a new voltage potential is produced across
cell membrane
§ which stimulates voltage-gated sodium channels
· This allows more sodium in & action potential will travel rapidly &
propagate across cell until it completes
§ Causes muscle cells to be depolarised

○ Acetylcholinesterase protein
§ Mechanism to stop passively diffusing acetylcholine from bonding to ligand-gated sodium-potassium channels
§ Enters extracellular matrix, bonds to sporadic acetylcholine & breaks them down to stop stimulating ligand-gated channels

41
Q

Explain the mechanism of excitation contraction coupling

A

○ Muscle action potential propagates an voltage differential into T tubule along cell membrane

○ Depolarisation of T-tubule causes opening of calcium channels between myosin & S.R.

○ Calcium released from Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

○ Calcium binds to troponin C

○ Affects tropomyosin & allow myosin start bonding to the actin & begin walking along actin strand pulling tropomyosin filaments together causing muscle contraction

42
Q

Appreciate the concept of a skeletal muscle motor unit

A

○ how the nervous system controls the force generating capacity of muscles

○ Array of muscle fibres innervated by multiple different motor units

○ ratio of number of muscle fibres being triggered by each motor units determine how fine of an actuation is

43
Q

Describe the role of the forelimb in locomotion

A

○ Roles – manoeuvrability, weightbearing, support & stability

○ Thoracic limb has evolved into a supporting structure of locomotor system

○ Thoracic girdle is reduced in cursors

○ Scapula slides on rib cage

○ Humerus large and robust

○ Radio ulnar articulation reduced/absent

44
Q

Discuss differences in forelimb anatomical structure between the major veterinary species and how this relates to their locomotor behaviour

A

○ Distal forelimb
Horse – minimise mass, store & release elastic energy, less requirement to control loss of digits

○ Tendon & ligaments
Horse – long, elastic flexor tendons (deep digital & superficial digital)
Dog – coupled with large proximal muscles (muscle control over digits)

○ Interosseus muscle
Horse – none (only one digit)
Dog – possess a lot to allow for individual movement of each digit

○ Foot & digits
Horse – hoof (keratin) = ungulate
Dog – digitigrade (bears weight on digits), metacarpal pads

45
Q

Describe the role of the pelvic limb in locomotion

A

○ Pelvic limb = fixed to trunk via sacroiliac joint

○ Proximal pelvic limb robust = Enable to withstand loads imposed on them

○ Thoracic limb = Support weight and turning and breaking

46
Q

Discuss differences in pelvic limb anatomical structure between the major veterinary species and how this relates to their locomotor behaviour.

A

○ Equine hindlimb
· Huge propulsive muscles (gluteals and hamstrings)
· Patella locking
· Reciprocal apparatus
· Reduced number of bones
· Increased tendons distally
· angular proximal limb, short robust femur, long & upright distal limb

○ Canine hindlimb
	· joint stops to take more angulation
	· weight based solely on digits
	· calcaneus for weight support
	· More RoM at ankle and foot = more muscles

○ Plantigrade hindlimb
· hind foot fully contact with ground
. long non-angular upper limb bones

47
Q

Describe the kinetics and kinematics of fore and hind limbs during the stride cycle

A

○ Forces (kinetics) – GFR (support animal weight), muscle forces (limb movement), joint contract forces

○ Stance phase – high GRF, stabilise joint, resist over-extension of distal joint

○ Swing phase – no GRF, protract limb, clear foot off ground, prepare for stance

48
Q

Know which muscle groups contribute to the various stages of the stride cycle

A

○ Hamstring group (hindlimb) – extend hip & flex stifle (main forward thrust)

○ Pectoral group (forelimb) – protracts, retracts & abducts forelimb

49
Q

Compare the basic differences between gaits based on i) footfall patterns and ii) biomechanical principles

A

○ Walking
· FF – RH,RF,LH,LF
· Biomechanics – out of phase kinetic & potential energy

○ Trotting
· FF – alternately balanced on diagonally opposite feet (LF/RH then RF/LH)
· Biomechanics – in phase kinetic & potential energy (due to elasticity)

○ Canter/Gallop
· FF – floating phase underneath body
. Biomechanics – minimise collision forces

50
Q

Explain why animals might chose to use particular gaits

A

○ Minimise GFR - reduce fatigue & musculoskeletal tissue impact

○ Energy efficient – change when oxygen consumption becomes costly

51
Q

Appreciate how gait may differ from the norm due to injury/pathology

A

○ Forelimb lameness – nods head when non-lame leg impacts the ground

○ Hindlimb lameness – asymmetry vertical movement

52
Q

Explain how the musculoskeletal system is arranged in animals adapted for terrestrial locomotion.

A

○ Bones, joints, cartilage, tendons, ligaments & muscles (See previous answers)

53
Q

Explain the role of tendon in locomotion and how it interacts with muscle to enhance efficiency and power output.

A

○ minimise distal limb mass

○ elastic energy storage

○ attached to muscle and bone – enhances muscle power to bone

54
Q

Discuss difference in limb morphology between different classes of mammal.

A

○ Plantigrade - surface of the whole foot touches the ground during locomotion

○ Digitigrade – only phalanges touch the ground

○ Unguligrade – singular toe touches ground

55
Q

Relate cost of locomotion to mode of transport, body mass and morphology.

A

○ Swimming – lowest cost (energetically cheap)

○ Flying – energetically expensive but fast

○ Running – most expensive, moving centre of mass not smooth, support body weight (slows down)

○ Body mass – smaller the animal, more costly the locomotion