LO11 - Social Psychology 1

Question 1

Definition of social psychology according to Allport

Answer 1

The scientific attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influences by the actual, imagines or implied presence of others.

We are interested in the social context and how this influences the individual.

It includes the implied presence of others as well as the actual presence of others.

Question 2

First impressions

Answer 2

These are initial judgements of the character of others made quickly from very little information. It is based of a combination of information but especially from faces.

We can think a face is untrustworthy after only looking at it for a millisecond.

Studies have shown that judgements made in small time frames are highly correlated with judgements made with no time constraints.

Question 3

What do we care about most when making first impressions

Answer 3

We care about trustworthiness, warmth and competence most when we meet people. We are social animals that have to determine certain information.

We want to determine if they have bad intentions. Individuals who are high in competence and not warm are high danger individuals.

Those with low warmth and low competence we are likely to disdain and deny humanity (homeless people).

Those with low competence and high warmth we pity and protect (children/elderly)

Those with high competence and high warmth we look up to, depend on and aspire to be.

Question 4

Primacy effect

Answer 4

First impressions are quick and enduring. When we are introduced to an individual using positive words first, they get a higher rating than if negative words are presented first. Early information drives the first impression.

Question 5

Confirmation bias in first impressions

Answer 5

First impressions are sticky because of this. We attend to information that is consistent with an initial impression and ignore information that is inconsistent with initial information.

A positive initial impression means you will pay more attention to positive details and less attention to information that discredits you initial opinion.

Question 6

Heuristics

Answer 6

These are low effort mental short cuts that are generally quite accurate.

Question 7

Accuracy of first impressions

Answer 7

Some impressions don’t endure but we tend to be accurate. When we pay more attention we can form quite an accurate impression.

The more we get to know people the more information we get and we become more accurate.

We pay attention when it matters and form a relatively accurate first impression.

Question 8

Explaining human behaviour

Answer 8

We are always trying to make inferences to predict behaviour. This helps us to gain some control over our environment.

We try to observe the internal qualities of a person why trying to explain why they do something.

Question 9

Attribution theory

Answer 9

Attributions are inferences we make about the causes of behaviour.

Attribution theory tries to explain causality in two main ways.

Question 10

Dispositional attributions

Answer 10

Dispositional attributions are internal causes to the person (traits, values, attitudes and beliefs)

Question 11

Situational attributions

Answer 11

Situational attributions look at external factors to explain the behaviour. It is about circumstances such as events

Question 12

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 12

When trying to find the cause of another person’s behaviour, they tend to overestimate the impact of internal/dispositional influences and underestimate the impact of external/situational influences.

This is a Western phenomenon - we focus on autonomy and individual factors.

Question 13

Actor-Observer Bias

Answer 13

When we view the self, we explain the causes of behaviour more in terms of external factors.

When we view others, we look more at dispositional factors.

Question 14

Self-serving bias/attributions

Answer 14

Self-serving biases is the view that we are motivated to maintain a positive self-view.

One way that the self-serving bias comes about is that we attribute our successes to internal factors but failures to external factors.

Question 15

Attributions for future events

Answer 15

We try to predict future events with affective forecasting. We are bad at predicting how we will feel in the future for both positive and negative emotions.

When we predict future happiness we overestimate how strong the emotion will be and how long it will last. We ignore that emotions are affected by a host of things.

Question 16

Attitudes

Answer 16

We can have a positive/negative/mixed reaction to or orientation towards a person, object or idea.

You can hold simultaneously positive and negative attitudes about things.

Question 17

Explicit attitudes

Answer 17

These are easy to report (self-report), we are conscious of them and they can be updated with new information.

There may be biases in self-report about some issues.

Question 18

Implicit attitudes

Answer 18

These are quick, automatic, unconscious and difficult to update. They are often not correlated with explicit attitudes.

They are the result of numerous repeated experiences. Past negative experiences are difficult to unlearn.

Question 19

Measuring implicit attitudes

Answer 19

Measured indirectly via facial expressions, body language or Implicit Association Tests.

Variations of the IAT exist and they use reaction times.

Measures the strength of association between concepts (black/white, gay/straight) and positivity/negativity.

Faster responses reflect stronger associations and therefore revealing biases.

Question 20

Attitudes and behavioural link

Answer 20

Attitudes have consequences - behaviour. However, attitudes dont often predict behaviour.

E.g. abstract attitudes about climate change might not reflect how you act.

Attitudes are most likely to predict behaviour about specific issues and when the attitudes are strong.

Question 21

Persuasion

Answer 21

Changing people’ a attitudes to change their behaviour. We are always being bombarded by persuasive messages.

Question 22

Elaboration likelihood model (persuasion)

Answer 22

This is a dual process theory of persuasion that suggests how people respond to persuasive messages.

There are two routes to this communication for a persuasive message.

The central route is high effort and requires cognitive effort to evaluate the message/argument. It is likely to result in a lasting change in attitude.

The peripheral route is low effort and we pay attention to superficial and easy to process information/cues that result in temporary changes in attitude.

Question 23

Will persuasive messages take a central or peripheral route?

Answer 23

It depends on the receiver’s motivation, ability and need for cognition. Motivation matters.

Some people tend to think things through and take a central route.

Question 24

Cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 24

This is based on the idea that we strongly desire cognitive consistency and a mental state in which beliefs, attitudes and behaviours are compatible.

Where there is a discrepancy between beliefs attitudes and behaviours we feel dissonance (inner tension) and are motivated to reduce this.

People do irrational things to maintain cognitive dissonance. The greater the incompatibility, the greater the tension.

Question 25

Post-decision dissonance

Answer 25

When a decision is hard and important, all options have pros and cons and a decision cannot be undone.

You rationalise a decision after it has been made. You focus on the positive qualities of the chosen option and the negative qualities of the option not chosen.

Question 26

Effort justification (Cognitive dissonance theory)

Answer 26

When you have payed a high price for something and it turns out to be disappointing, you devote mental energy to justifying what you have done.

Your behaviour does not align with your attitude and justifying your action means your attitude will align more with behaviour.

Question 27

Social norms

Answer 27

These are commonly shares beliefs about appropriate actions that vary across culture, context and time.

Violating these often results in awkwardness and even hostility.

People in collectivist cultures tend to stick to social norms more as people value interdependence while individualistic cultures value independence more.

When situations are ambiguous we tend to follow what others are doing more often.

Question 28

Social influence

Answer 28

This is how people are affected by the real or imagined presence of others.

They are automatic and reflex-like behaviours. Automatic mimicry is the chameleon effect.

This has a social function as it eases interactions (social synchrony).

Question 29

Ways we yield to social influence

Answer 29

Conformity - changing our perceptions, opinions or behaviour in ways that are consistent with group norms.
Compliance - changing our behaviour in response to direct requests. Compliance techniques can increase the chance of someone saying yes.
Obedience - changing our behaviour in response to commands by perceived authority figures (source of pressure)

We can resist social influences but this takes effort

Question 30

Asch’s conformity study

Answer 30

Wanted to see if group settings sway conformity. He made the answer of the task obvious but confederates gave the wrong answer.

35% conformed with the wrong answer. Only 25% never conformed.

There was no pressure to conform (reward/punishment)

Question 31

Two main reasons we conform

Answer 31

1. Informational influence: We need to be right and we are seeking information. This was not why people conformed in Asch’s study as the task was obvious.
2. The normative influence is the fear of being judged by others and not wanting to be excluded. People dont want to stand out.

Question 32

Obedience under pressure

Answer 32

People are obedient in low pressure situations so will be very compliant in high pressure situations.

Milgram wanted to see if normal people would harm others at the request of an authority figure after WW2.

He wanted to see if people are evil and what causes people to harm others other than internal factors.

Question 33

Milgram’s findings

Answer 33

65% of people went to the maximum shock and 100% went to 300V.

Highly shocking result - situational factors drove this obedience. It was not blind obedience as participants were distressed.

Question 34

Factors effecting obedience according to Milgram

Answer 34

Obedience is highest when participant is an assistant to a confederate. It is also higher at Harvard than an off-campus building.

When the teacher was in the same room, obedience drops. When the experimenter was not present, obedience drops.

If there are two participants, one being a confederate, this give the participant a way out and obedience drops.

Situations are very powerful.