Living and working conditions

Question 1

What happened in 1861?

Answer 1

Emancipation of the serfs came about owing to moral and economic concerns. Serfs gained the rights of citizens, were able to leave their villages and were allotted a small amount of land.

Question 2

What was bad about the emancipation edict?

Answer 2

Redemption payments for 49 years, rights of peasants were only theoretical, many found themselves still tied to their old owners.

Question 3

What was good about the emancipation edict?

Answer 3

It allowed enterprising peasants to buy up land and increase output, it allowed more peasants to move to cities and landowners could use redemption payments to pay off debts.

Question 4

Give three major educational reforms

Answer 4

1863 private schools were permitted, 1864 control of education taken away from the church and given to the zemstva, 1870 girls allowed the same education as boys.

Question 5

How else was education reformed?

Answer 5

1863 decrease in tuition fees, introduction of a new code for secondary schools with modern gymnasia which taught ‘new’ subjects such as science and math. Number of secondary students doubled 1855-65.

Question 6

What happened to the educational reforms during the later rein?

Answer 6

Dmitri Tolstoy became minister of education in 1865 and undid many of the reforms, by 1877 the government controlled what the zemstva could do in education, university appointments and the content of the curriculum.

Question 7

What happened to censorship under Alexander II?

Answer 7

Embraced glasnost and relaxed censorship laws in 1865, books published 1855-64 increased by 844.

Question 8

Who was Alexander II’s finance minister and what did he do?

Answer 8

Reutern, focused policies on foreign investments, experts and real way construction. Railways would industrialize Russia as their construction would stimulate secondary industrial and connect tje country, allowing the transport of goods across the vast empire.

Question 9

Give some of Reutern’s policies

Answer 9

Miles of track increased from 2,200 to 14,000 during his tenure, foreign companies offered monopolies, taxation exemptions and bail outs to encourage them into Russia, leading to a great deal of corruption, by 1880 94% of railways were privately owned.

Question 10

What happened to the economy under Reutern?

Answer 10

Economic growth was 6% per year and industrial output doubled.

Question 11

Who was Alexander III’s first finance minister and what did he do?

Answer 11

1882-87, bunge, abolished the poll tax and the salt tax and set up the peasant land bank in 1883 to allow peasants to take out low interest loans to buy up more land. Dismissed in 1887 and blamed for the fall in the value of the rouble.

Question 12

Who was Alexander III’s second finance minister and what did he do?

Answer 12

1887-91, vyshnegradsky, introduced import tariffs of 30% such as 1891’s Dmitri Mendeleev tariff- they were meant to strengthen industry at home, instead they raised the prices of consumer goods, making it impossible for peasants to buy them. Growth rate of 5% per year.

Question 13

What happened to peasants under vyshnegradsky?

Answer 13

They were forced to export grain even when there were shortages at home, this led to an 18% increase in grain exports, but was one of the main causes of the 1891 famine.

Question 14

What caused the famine under Alexander III?

Answer 14

Drought, inefficient farming methods, a lack of machinery and vyshnegradsky’s policies, led to 350,000 deaths as the government was very slow to act. Set up the emergency committee for famine relief and the ministry for agriculture but this all came rather too late and the peasants were largely blamed for the famine.

Question 15

What were the consequences of the famine?

Answer 15

Led to the dismissal of vyshnegradsky, he would be replaced by witte. It led to many once loyal peasants losing faith in the system.

Question 16

Who was Alexander III’s third finance minister and what did he do?

Answer 16

1893- Sergei witte, the first minister to commit totally to industrialization, raised taxes and encouraged forign loans, invested in railway and heavy industry and pushed for state sponsored industrialization.

Question 17

What happened to education under Alexander III?

Answer 17

Reversed many of Alexander II’s reforms, increased tuition fees in 1887 and gave full control of schools back to the church, banned the teaching of science and switched back to the traditional curriculum. Made it so that members of university councils were appointed, not voted for.

Question 18

What happened in 1882?

Answer 18

Factory inspectors were introduced and owners were banned from employing under 12s, the power of said inspectors was so limited that factory owners continued as they had before.

Question 19

What bill on religion did Alexander III pass?

Answer 19

1883 bill gave old believers the right to meet in their houses of prayer but outlawed any public promotion of their beliefs, anyone who tried to convert a member of the Orthodox Church could be arrested.

Question 20

Who was Nicholas’s first finance minister and what did he do?

Answer 20

Witte 1893-1903, allowed foreign experts into Russia, took out foreign loans, raised taxes and interest rates. Put Russia on the gold standard in 1897 which stabilized the currency.

Question 21

What major project happened under witte?

Answer 21

The construction of the trans Siberian railway which allowed for travel from western cities to Vladivostok and stimulated other industries.

Question 22

Give some statistics for economic growth under Nicholas

Answer 22

Economy grew 7.5% per year, coal production doubled, iron production increased seven fold, miles of track increased from 17,000 in 1891 to 31,000 in 1901.

Question 23

What were the downsides to witte’s policies?

Answer 23

Railway construction was rushed, yet by 1914 Russia still had 11x fewer miles of track then Germany, neglected agriculture and engineering and relied too much on foreign loans.

Question 24

What did industrialization under Nicholas lead to?

Answer 24

The development of a middle class and an urban proletariat who lived in cramped and overcrowded conditions and were increasingly influenced by Marxist ideas.

Question 25

Give some statistics to show how poor living conditions were under Nicholas

Answer 25

By 1910 93% of St. Petersburg workers were alcoholics, 1/2 of all housing was made from flammable wood, 200/1000 towns had piped water, 38 had sewage systems, 74 had electricity and 35 had gas.

Question 26

What happened in 1910?

Answer 26

Cholera outbreak in St. Petersburg as there wasn’t a sewage system, led to 100,000 deaths and forced the government to install one in 1911.

Question 27

What happened 1906-07?

Answer 27

Peasants in the black earth regions revolted, they burned crops and damaged machinery, this led to Stolypin introduction his wager on the strong reforms.

Question 28

What was the wager on the strong?

Answer 28

1907- unused land made available for peasants to buy on the land bank and peasants were able to consolidate their strips into small holdings.

Question 29

What were the consequences of the wager on the strong?

Answer 29

Led to a richer class of peasants, but this did not mean support for the tsar. Only 20% consolidated their strips and by 1914 2 million had left the village commune- this would later lead to labor shortages.

Question 30

What else did Stolypin do?

Answer 30

Doubled spending on agriculture and doubled the number of primary schools.

Question 31

What reforms for workers happened under Nicholas?

Answer 31

1903- introduction of a worker’s insurance system. 1914- working day had decreased from 11 hours to 9 hours with statutory holidays, but pay remained low.

Question 32

What bill on religion did Nicholas pass?

Answer 32

1905- allowed orthodox Christians to convert to other Christian faiths, reversed this in 1910 and began to restrict the rights of non orthodox groups.

Question 33

What was Lenin’s first economic approach?

Answer 33

State capitalism, it was formed by the decree on worker’s control, the decree on land and the formation of the supreme economic council.

Question 34

What was the supreme economic council?

Answer 34

Set up to control industries the Bolsheviks had nationalized, by 1920 there were over 30,000 companies and it could not cope, so was replaced with the council of labor and defense.

Question 35

What was war communism?

Answer 35

It consisted of grain requisitioning, the partial militarization of labor and the nationalization of larger enterprises, harsh measures were justified as they were ‘necessary’ to help the government through the crisis of the war.

Question 36

What was the NEP?

Answer 36

Introduced in 1921, seen by many Bolsheviks as a betrayal of communism as it included capitalist elements, Lenin justified it saying it was a temporary measure to help the country recover from the war.

Question 37

What were some of the policies of the NEP?

Answer 37

Ended requisitioning and allowed peasants to sell surplus grain, removed restrictions on private trade, encouraged foreign trade, denationalized small scale industry and introduced trusts to help with state control of heavy industry.

Question 38

What else did the NEP introduce?

Answer 38

A developed social insurance system with maternity pay, benefits for the disabled and sickness benefits.

Question 39

What group emerged under the NEP?

Answer 39

NEPmen, they were businessmen who benefited from the plan and were responsible for 60% of retail trade by 1923.

Question 40

Give some statistics for the consequences of the NEP

Answer 40

Led to 18% unemployment, 3x increase in coal output, doubled grain output and steel output increased 17x.

Question 41

What worker reforms did lenin introduce?

Answer 41

Bolsheviks wanted to show they were the party of the workers so introduced the 8 hour working day and brought in laws to improve conditions. However, fines were put in place for petty wrongdoings and workers found themselves accused of wrecking and sabotage if they were thought to be counterrevolutionary.

Question 42

What was the new work discipline?

Answer 42

Introduced factory inspectors known as rabkrin, hours were long, pay was low and discipline was harshly imposed.

Question 43

How were kulaks treated by lenin?

Answer 43

Under war communism they were blamed for shortages, had their crops confiscated, were denounced and persecuted and were seen as useful scapegoats for failed policies. Their situation improved under the NEP as there were more of them and they were seen as useful but they were still forced to pay higher taxes and were blamed for any shortages.

Question 44

What was collectivization like under Lenin?

Answer 44

This was the process whereby small farms were brought together into larger farms thought to be more productive as peasants would work together and utilize land better. Lenin understood the great upheaval this would cause, so took a gradual approach to it.

Question 45

What happened in 1918?

Answer 45

Food crisis caused by peasants hoarding grain and a loss of land under the treaty of Brest litovsk. Bolsheviks blamed the kulaks and began persecuting them. The peasants reacted violently by burning crops and refusing to join collectives, by 1921 the countryside was in chaos.

Question 46

What happened in 1921?

Answer 46

Famine caused by drought, requisitioning, severe winter and transport issues. Owing to the paralyzed railway network, food could not reach cities, famine resulted in 5 mullein deaths for which Lenin was partially blamed as he had refused American aid.

Question 47

What happened to education under Lenin?

Answer 47

1918- education taken from the church and given to the soviets, gymnasia replaced with polytechnics which focused on skills for particular types of work.

Question 48

What happened to the church under Lenin?

Answer 48

Under the decree of separation of the church and state the church was seerky restricted, they had their property confiscated and many were closed down.

Question 49

What happened to housing under Lenin?

Answer 49

Houses were taken from the richer classes and given to workers to live in.

Question 50

What were the five year plans?

Answer 50

1928-32, 1933-37, 1938-41, 1946-50, 1951-55 were introduced to transform the ussr into an industrial economy and create a socialist society, this would protect it from external threats. They focused on ending private business and focusing everything in the state on fulfilling the plan, they set ambitious targets such as a 250% increase in output.

Question 51

What did stalin use to transform the economy?

Answer 51

Fear- managers and technicians were made responsible for meeting the targets and if they failed to do so they could be accused of wrecking. He utilized the slave labor found in the gulags to construct major protects and prisoners could be worked to death and easily replaced.

Question 52

What was the Stakhanovite movement?

Answer 52

Stakhanovite movement was used to inspire the workers by telling them they were in a battle to build socialism for the common good. Individual workers were given targets to fulfill, alexi Stakhanovite was a coal miner who had mined 14x his quota in one shift, he was hailed as a hero with the Stakhanovite movement being used to promote a vigorous work ethic.

Question 53

What were the consequences of the five year plans?

Answer 53

Saw a colossal increase in cola, steel and electrical output and allowed the ussr to survive the german invasion, they increased industrial workers and saw the most productive workers rewarded with better pay and houses. But pay was low and safety non existent, workers’ movements were restricted, absence was a criminal offense and there was a shortage in consumer goods and a lack of investment in agriculture.

Question 54

What was collectivization?

Answer 54

Created large state owned farms for peasants to work on together which were expected to be more productive and would allow more peasants to move to the cities, it would also lead to the abolition of private property and the establishment of a socialist state.

Question 55

How was collectivization initially imposed?

Answer 55

Voluntarily, but very soon peasants were forced onto collectives, de kulakization squads were sent into the countryside to forcibly impose collectivization and take grain from the reluctant peasants.

Question 56

Give some statistics showing the impact of collectivization

Answer 56

1932-62% of farms were collectives, 1937-93% were. 10 million kulaks were killed and cattle numbers fell from 70 to 38 million in 1933. Grain harvests had fallen from 73 to 68 million tons and famine 1932-33 killed 4 million.

Question 57

What were the political consequences of collectivization?

Answer 57

It brought socialism to the countryside and allowed the state to control the peasants and grain and increased the number of industrial workers.

Question 58

What happened to education under Stalin?

Answer 58

It was made compulsory in 1930, number of children in education rose from 0.5million in 1922 to 35million in 1941. 100% literacy rate reached by 1941, 70,000 libraries constructed, children were taught science, engineering and socialist ideas.

Question 59

How were women treated under Stalin?

Answer 59

Traditional gender roles were reimposed, there was an emphasis on large families with women rewarded for having more children. Abortion was made illegal again and divorce was made harder. Women were expected to work full time and raise a family, 10 million entered the workforce under the 5YPs.

Question 60

What were Khrushchev’s goals?

Answer 60

Wanted to modernize soviet agriculture, improve efficiency and make the Soviet union self sufficient.

Question 61

What was the virgin lands scheme?

Answer 61

1954 scheme to farm the unused areas of Siberia and Kazakhstan, short term success but soon led to soil exhaustion and unpredictable harvests as soil erosion set it.

Question 62

What was Khrushchev’s other agricultural scheme?

Answer 62

Maize growing initiative, only 1/6th of the 85 million acres actually grew. 1963 saw bad harvests, a lack of fertilizer and exhausted soil led to the harvest being only 1/3rd of what was expected leading the ussr to import US grain.

Question 63

What did Khrushchev introduce in 1959?

Answer 63

The seven year plan which emphasized heavy industry but also looked to develop chemicals and plastics. To enforce the plan he decentralized the system and set up regional soznarkhozy councils to oversee economic development.

Question 64

What were the consequences of decentralization?

Answer 64

Made many party bureaucrats unhappy and created more bureaucracy as the lack of communication between the soznarkhozy led to confusion and the misuse of resources.

Question 65

What happened in 1956?

Answer 65

Khrushchev introduced the living wage and embarked on a huge house building scheme, using prefabricated buildings which became known as Khrushcheyovka, they could be constructed quickly and have families apartments to themselves, heating and running water.

Question 66

How else did Khrushchev help society?

Answer 66

Doubled welfare spending in 9 years and quadrupled spending on pensions. 1961 he introduced free lunches for school, factory and office workers, introduced free public transport and healthcare for farmers.

Question 67

How did Khrushchev treat religion?

Answer 67

Led a campaign against religion with churches closed down and priests imprisoned. Atheism was put on the curriculum and religious people were discriminated against.

Question 68

What happened to quality of life under Khrushchev?

Answer 68

It increased markedly, infant mortality fell from 81/1000 to 27/1000 and life expectancy rose from 50 to 65 years in 10 years.

Question 69

How did Khrushchev treat women?

Answer 69

Abortion was legalized in 1955, paid maternity leave was increased from 77 to 112 days in 1956 and more crèches and childcare facilities were made available. However, contraception was not readily available and crèche hours stopped women from having full working lives.

Question 70

What happened to education under Khrushchev?

Answer 70

Imposed cumpolsory basic education for 8 years, set up secondary general and polytechnic schools with produce Timon training and an emphasis on science in higher education with the introduction of quantum physics, genetics and relativity.