LING330: Quiz #1 Flashcards
Part of the body inside your ribs
Thoracic cavity
How many ribs are in the hums ribcage?
12 pairs
What are the top 10 ribs attached to?
Sternum (spinal column in the back and to the breast bone)
Is the ribcage totally fixed?
No, ribs are attached to sternum and each other by flexible cartilage
Muscles that run along the inside and outside of the ribcage
Intercostals (internal and external)
Fall between the ribs
Largest abdominal muscle that’s relevant in breathing
Rectus abdominus
Runs straight down the front of the body
If developed, becomes a six pack ;)
Main functions of abdominal muscles
1- to position and bend the upper body
2- stiffen for efforts like weight lifting
3- apply pressure for pooping and childbirth
4- respiration
Diaphragm
At bottom of ribcage
Separates lungs from stomach and other digestive organs
Large and dome-shaped
Stretches over digestive organs like a parachute, attached at several points along the bottom edge of the pelvis and held up by attachments to sternum, ribs and spinal cord
Main muscular engine of respiration
Contraction of diaphragm
Four parts of lungs
-tiny sacs (alveoli) -> tiny rubes (bronchioles) -> larger tubes (bronchia)-> trachea (which then connects to outside via oral and nasal tracts)
Do lungs have muscles?
No, contract because stuck to ribs
Membrane of the lungs
Pulmonary pleura
Membrane attached to inside of ribs
Costal pleura
What is pleural linkage?
Pulmonary pleura and costal pleura stick together because both the membranes are wet and surface area causes them to stick
Average total lung volume for an adult
5-7 litres
The amount of air that a person can possibly exchange in respiration is called…
Their vital capacity (70% of total lung capacity aka 3.5-5 litres)
Vital capacity of tidal breathing
10-15% or 0.5 litres per breath
Vital capacity of speech
20-80% depending on loudness aka 1-3.5 litres
Normal speech’s vital capacity
50%
Difference between tidal breathing and speech
Timing
Volume
Breathing during tidal breathing vs speech
Tidal breathing: 12-20 breaths per min, half inhaling and half exhaling
Speech: less breaths per min, each breath is 10% inhalation; speaker quickly takes in large volume of air then exhales slowly, controlling egressive airflow
Restful breathing (in and out, in and out)
Tidal breathing
Inhalation process
1- external intercostals contract to pull the ribs up and out
2- diaphragm contracts to lower the floor of the thoracic cavity
3- thoracic cavity (and the lungs in it) enlarge
4- volume increased + pressure lowered = air rushes in from outside
Exhalation process
1- muscles relax
2- ribs and diaphragm return to normal shape which pushes in on lungs
3- pressures goes up and air is forced out
**in speech this is controlled
How is the exhalation process controlled during speech
1- tension on diaphragm is released slowly
2- tension on ribcage=balanced between internal and external intercostals (externals=hold ribs up, internals=pull ribs down and in)
3- internal intercostals contract more
4- ab muscles contract to pull bottom of ribcage down and in
Why is respiration important in prosody?
Once believed that smallest prosodic unit=small contraction of diaphragm corresponding to each syllable (not true!)
Larger groupings of speech may depend on breath
The average length of a sentence is…
Same length as an average breath (roughly), which a rise in pitch at the beginning and fall at the end
Intonational phrase (aka breath group)
Sentence-length unit with rise in pitch at beginning and fall at the end
Gradual lowering in pitch= gradually decreasing airflow but actually a linguistic choice
Larynx
Structure of cartilage and muscle
Sits above trachea
Non speech function = valve that closes off opening to lungs aka the trachea
Speech function = different parts adjusted to produce different speech sounds (produces vibration, voicing, combined with supralaryngeal vocal tract to distinguish other consonants and vowels)
Four cartilages of larynx
1- cricoid cartilage: forms base of larynx, shaped like a ring
2- two arytenoid cartilages: sit on top of cricoid plate, shaped like triangular pyramids, long points facing inward over opening of trachea (like diving boards, called vocal processes); both set in small indentations in the cricoid so they can swivel to make diff vocals
3- thyroid cartilage: covers front of larynx, shaped like triangular shield, folded partly back on itself
Thyro-arytenoid muscle (aka vocalis)
Set of two muscles that stretch from vocal processes of arytenoids in the back -> center notch of thyroid in front
Vocal ligament
Runs along inside of each muscle
What makes up the vocal folds?
Vocalis muscle
Vocal ligament
Both covered in mucous membrane
Glottis
Space in between vocal folds and opening to the trachea
How vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages affect the vocal folds
Vocal processes swung apart = vocal folds open
Vocal processes swung together= vocal folds close
Adduction vs abduction
Adduction = vocal folds come together Abduction = vocal folds move apart
Muscles that attach the arytenoids to the cricoid and to each other
Posterior crico-arytenoid muscle (PCA)
Allows swinging motion of arytenoids
How does the PCA allow the arytenoids to swing?
PCA contracts -> pulls muscular processes IN AND DOWN, causing vocal processes to ROTATE UP AND OUT
Two sets of muscles that accomplish vocal fold adduction
1- interarytenoid muscles (IA): runs between the two arytenoid cartilages
2- lateral crico-arytenoid muscles (LCA): connect sides of arytenoids to sides of cricoid
What happens when the interarytenoid muscles contract?
Pulls vocal processes together, as for voicing
What happens when crico-arytenoid muscles contract?
Brings vocal processes together and down
What causes vocal fold vibration?
Combo of vocal fold position, tension and airflow
Myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation
If vocal folds are adducted so that their edges are touching and are held tight but not clamped completely shut, then as air passes between them the folds will start vibrating
Bernoulli effect
Physical principle that causes the vibration
Drop in pressure perpendicular to the flow of liquid or gas and this pressure drop is proportional to the velocity of the airflow
How does muscle tension + aerodynamics of Bernoulli effect make vocal folds vibrate?
1- IA muscles pull vocal folds together (with vocalis contraction making vocal folds taut)
2- air flows out of lungs through trachea
3- pressure builds behind closed folds
4- when there’s enough subglottal air pressure, vocal folds are blown open so that air flows between them
5- once airflow established = Bernoulli effect kicks in
6- drop of pressure across folds pulls the folds back together
7- folds touching again=airflow stops=Bernoulli effect turns off and cycle begins again with pressure building behind closed folds
Speed of vocal fold vibration cycle depends on…
Inherent mass of vocal folds
Stiffness of vocal folds
Sub-glottal air pressure
**repeated 120 per second for male and 220 for female
Fundamental frequency of the voice (aka F0)
Frequency at which vocal fold vibration cycle repeats
Measured in cycles per second (or hertz)
Differences in fundamental frequency are perceived in diffs in pitch
Is fundamental frequency of voice (F0) given biologically or controlled by individual?
Both
Affected by mass of speaker’s vocal folds
Within given range, under speaker’s control
Primary way to change F0
1- tilt thyroid cartilage forward which stretches vocal folds attached to it
2- more the folds are stretched = higher the frequency of vibration
Muscle that tilts thyroid forward for F0 changes
Crico-thyroid (CT)
It connects the front of the thyroid to the front of the cricoid
Contraction of CT = thyroid forward and down
How is the function of the larynx muscles tested?
Using electromyography (EMG) Involves inserting small wire probes into the muscle you want to examine Muscle contracts = electrode picks up electrical signal from firing muscle cells and send signal to computer Coordinate EMG signal with speech signal = determining with muscles are contracting for each speech sound Difficult to place electrodes correctly and uncomfortable
What muscles are involved with extreme pitch range f0 adjustment?
Strap muscles of the neck that are outside the larynx
Run up and down the neck from the sternum to the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone
Names:
1- sterno-thyroid
2- thyro-hyoid
3- sterno-hyoid
2 pulls larynx up in the throat (raising f0) and 1+3 pulls larynx down (lowering f0 by shortening/thickening vocal folds)
Also active in raising larynx for ejectives and lowering it for implosives
Hyoid bone
Small horseshoe shaped bone that floats (attached to muscle but no bones) at the top of the throat, near the chin
Modal voicing
Vibration of the full length of the vocal folds, repeating at regular intervals
Type of voicing usually heard in the middle of vowel sounds
Creaky voice
Clamping down on the posterior portion of the vocal folds (via contraction of the LCA) with additional vocal fold tension (contraction of the vocalis)
Usually occurs around glottal stops and at the end of utterances
Breathy voice (aka murmur)
Combines vocal fold vibration with high airflow
Vocal folds held more loosely so that they open wider and stay open longer, or vocal folds never close completely at all so that the anterior parts of the vocal folds are vibrating while the posterior part of the folds stays open to let air pass through
Measure of open quotient
Measure of creaky-modal-breathy continuum
Refers to percentage of time in a cycle that vocal folds are open
Modal voicing: 50%
Creaky voice: 20%
Breathy voice: 80%-100%
Sex characteristics of the larynx
Men:
-hormone induced growth at puberty causes men’s vocal folds to be 50% longer and thicker than a woman’s = slow vibration, lower pitch
Women:
- arytenoid cartilages of women are set father apart and have a greater range in motion than men or have glottal chink (vocal folds never close completely bc arytenoids so far apart)
- supralaryngeal and sublaryngeal parts of vocal tract more closely linked bc glottis more open
- trachea=resonating chamber for women’s voices but not men’s
- length of supralaryngeal vocal tract is typically less for women than men bc smaller average body size
Source-filter model
Source: air from lungs pushed through larynx
Filter: vocal tract
Two types of airstream mechanisms
Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic
3 sources of air: lungs, larynx, tongue
English sounds are all pulmonic
What sounds are laryngeal?
Ejectives and implosives
Glottalic impressive vs egressive
What type of sound are clicks?
Lingual/Velaric ingressive
2 states of the vocal folds
- apart: air freely passes through, breathing, voiceless sounds
- together: vibration, voiced sounds and voicing
Typical number of consonant sounds in a language
Low 20s (from 6 to 122 overall)
5 parts of describing consonants
1- state of the vocal folds (voicing) 2- place of articulation 3- central vs lateral approximate 4- oral vs nasal 5- manner of articulation
Name the labial places of articulation
Bilabial
Labiodental
Name coronal places of articulation
Dental
Alveolar
Postalveolar (palato-alveolar)
Dorsal places of articulation
Velar
Uvular
Four types of tongue sounds
1- apical (tip)
2- laminal (blade)
3- dorsal (back)
4- radical (root)
The process of oral vs nasal sounds
Oral: velum raised, blocks nasal cavity
Nasal: velum lowered and open
Stop vs plosive sounds
Stop: build up of pressure
Plosive: pressure released, burst of air occurs
**both: complete constriction of air in oral cavity
Affricates
- combo of stop + fricative
- homoorganic (made in same place of articulation)
Approximants
Articulators are close, but not enough to create turbulent air
Vowel to Approximant to fricative to stop
Divisible into glides (j, w) and liquids (r, l)
5 parts to describing vowels sounds
1- voicing
2- position of tongue and lips
Three dimensions:
FRONTNESS: arching of tongue towards front, centre or back of oral cavity
HEIGHT: tongue body within lower jaw, narrows or widens oral cavity
LIP ROUNDING: rounded or unfounded
Average number of vowels in a language
5-6
Movement from one vowel to another within a single syllable is called…
Diphthong!
Broad vs narrow transcription
Broad: phonemic, general, idealized
Narrow: phonetic, specific/detailed, speaker specific
IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet
Developed by the international phonetic association in Paris in 1886
French and English language teachers
Only 1 symbol for every sound
IPA organization
Diacritics and suprasegmentals
Consonants (pulmonic and non pulmonic)
Vowels
Which muscles are used for inhalation?
External intercostals
Diaphragm
How do we breathe?
Boyle’s law: volume x pressure = constant (at a certain temp)
Pressure is inversely related to volume
Ex: volume goes UP -> air pressure goes DOWN -> creates ingressive airflow (to breathe in) and then volume of lungs goes DOWN -> air pressure goes UP -> egressive airflow (to breathe out)
Lungs
Location: thoracic cavity
Linked to trachea via bronchi -> bronchia -> 300 million alveoli pulmonis
No muscles (elastic)
25% from elasticity of tissue, the other 75% from surface tension of water in blood around alveoli
Pleura
Lungs can expand and contract because they’re suspended in the thorax and surrounded by membranes
1- visceral pleura
2- interpleural space (filled with lubricating liquid)
3- parietal pleura (attached to chest wall)
How do the lungs expand?
Movement of thoracic cavity transmitted to lungs through pleurae/interpleural space
Ex: drops of water between two glass slides (glides easily, tough to separate)
Quiet respiration vs speech
Quiet breathing: 40% inhalation, 60% exhalation
Speech: 10% inhalation, 90% expiration (during speech, external intercostals restrain exhalation which controls loudness/intensity)
The vocal ligaments connect what cartilages?
The thyroid and the arytenoid cartilages
Describe inspiration (inhalation)
External intercostal muscles turn ribs out, increases volume of the thorax
Diaphragm: when flattened, increases volume of thorax
Exhalation
Elastic recoil force
Passive movement back to the rest position
If lungs contracted beyond rest, then internal intercostals
Male vs female larynx
Male: length is 44mm, diameter 43 mm
Female: length is 36mm, diameter 41 mm
Vocal folds in males vs females
Male: 17-25 mm (50% thicker)
Female: 12.5-17.5 mm
How are muscles and ligaments named ?
They name them using the origin (bone that doesn’t move) and insertion (bone that does)
Hyoid bone
Role: supports tongue root
Attached to thyroid cartilage via thyrohyoid ligament
Epiglottis
Role: stops food from entering the trachea and lungs
Flap at the top of the larynx
Thyroid
Role: vocals folds/ligaments attach here, also tilts to increase pitch
Cricothyroid
Stretches vocal folds (draws thyroid cartilage forward, increase space between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages)
Tenses the vocal fold
Controls length of vocal folds, rate of vocal fold vibration
=important for pitch
Lateral cricoarytenoid
Adducts vocal folds
Does this by pulling the arytenoid cartilages forward, causing the arytenoids to pivot and adduct the vocal folds
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Abducts vocal folds
Oblique arytenoid
Draws arytenoid cartilages together to adduct the vocal folds
Transverse arytenoideus muscle
Draws arytenoid cartilages together, adducting vocal folds
Which muscle is engaged to increase pitch?
Cricothyroid
Which muscles would we tense in order to abduct the vocal folds?
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
The three arytenoid muscles
1- posterior cricoarytenoid muscles: opens space between the vocal cords (abduct) by rotating the arytenoids laterally; moves vocal folds apart, upward and to the side
2- oblique arytenoid: draws arytenoid cartilages together, adducting vocal folds
3- transverse arytenoideus muscles: draws arytenoid cartilages together, adducting vocal folds
Vocal folds
Reach from thyroid cartilage to arytenoid cartilage
Contains vocalis muscle, attached to vocal ligament
Conus elasticus: stretches between cricoid and vocal ligament
What effect explains how the vocal folds adduct?
The Bernoulli effect
The increased speed of air molecules results in a DECREASE in air pressure, which draws the vocal folds together
How do vocal folds open and close?
Open: generally from bottom to top, back to front
Close: from bottom to top; first middle, then back to front simultaneously
4 current theories to explain vocal fold vibration
1- aerodynamic (Bernoulli effect)
2- myoelastic
3- two mass
4- muco vicose, cover body and flow separation
What were the two debunked theories of vocal fold vibration and why ?
1- vibrating string; said the vocal folds vibrate like violin strings
Debunked because an ossilating string needs a resonance body
2- neurochronaxic; vibrate due to rapidly contracting and relaxing muscles
Debunked because muscles and nerve impulses aren’t fast enough for that!
Bernoulli effect (aerodynamic theory of vocal fold vibration)
Steady airflow through a tube like the trachea; when tube narrows, air molecules move faster
1- increased air speed
2- less up/down/left/right movement
3- drop in pressure
4- folds sucked together
5- pressure builds up below folds=forces pull them apart
Repeat!
Myoelastic theory of vocal fold vibration
Subglottal pressure remains relatively constant so vocal fold vibration should be constant as well…but is it?
How can we explain the varying rate of vocal fold vibration?
1- length of vocal folds (long=faster than short)
2- elasticity (elastic recoil force, tense folds=vibrate faster)
3- mass/thickness (thick=vibrate slower)
Two parts of the supra-laryngeal tract
Tongue and jaw/mandible
Jaw/mandible
Opening: digasticus muscle, geniohyoid
Closing: masseter
Tongue
Muscular hydrostat
Like a water balloon
Extrinsic muscles for position
Intrinsic muscles for shape
Four extrinsic muscles of the tongue
1- hyoglossus:
Hyoid; role=lowering, sounds=low vowel (also swallowing)
2- styloglossus:
Role=tongue up and back, sounds=velars, high back vowels
3- palatoglossus:
Role=tongue up, velum down, sounds=palatals, laterals, sibilants, nasals
4- genioglossus:
Jaw; role= tongue front and body forward and up, sounds= low front vowels, coronals
Four intrinsic muscles of the tongue
1- superior longitudinal (tongue tip up and back; retro flex sounds)
2- inferior longitudinal (tongue tip down)
3- transverse and vertical (work together; role=narrowing and lengthening, sounds=dentals, laterals, low vowels)
Describe lung volume
Max volume: 6 litres
At rest: 3 litres (or more)
Tidal breathing volume: extra .5 litres inhaled/exhaled 10-20 times per min
What’s vital capacity? (Lungs)
Max inspiration volume - max expiration volume = vital capacity
How does Boyle’s law explain how we breathe?
Expanding our chest cavity increases the volume of air in our lungs, which decreases the pressure, which leads to ingressive airflow (breathing in)
Contracting the lungs decreases the volume, which increases the pressure and leads to eggressive airflow
Which muscles are used for exhalation?
None!
Internal intercostals used if exhaling beyond rest position
If you were stabbed in the chest and you ended up with a pneumothorax (gas or air had leaked into the interpleural space). Why would this make it hard to breathe?
Since the lungs have no muscles, contraction and expansion of the lungs is transmitted via pleural linkage between the visceral/perietal pleurae and the interpleural space. If gas or air goes into the interpleural space, this would break the pleural linkage and stop the ability of the lungs to expand or contract.
