Lifespan Development Flashcards
Terms
Prenatal - conception to birth
Infancy - birth to 18 months
Early Childhood - 18 months to 6 years
Middle Childhood - 6-12 years
Adolescence - 12-20 years
Young Adulthood - 20-45 years
Middle Adulthood - 45-60 years
Late Adulthood - 60 years to death
Stroop Effect
John Stroop (1935)
Increased reaction time when you need to name the colour of an incongruously printed word.
Demonstrates difficulty in inhibiting an automatic response (reading the word).
Need to consciously control behaviour.
Executive functioning - controlling, organising and planning your behaviour.
Physical and Motor Development
The physical changes within the central nervous system.
- maturational
- driven by the environment
The development of key motor skills
Cognitive Development
The development of cognitive abilities.
- memory, thinking, perceiving and understanding the world.
- understand the causes and mechanism that drive the development of cognitive abilities.
Episodic Memory
Receives and stores information about temporal dated episode or event and the relation between these events.
Traditional memories.
Emotional Development
The development of expressing, understanding and control of emotions.
The development and consequences of emotional bonds.
Social Development
The impact of the social world on the development of the child.
The development of social behaviour and understanding of the social world.
Prenatal Stages of Development
Zygote Stage (conception and implantation). 0-2 weeks.
Embryonic Stage
3-8 weeks.
Foetus
9-38 weeks.
Zygote Stage
Day 0- conception
Ovum and sperm fuse to form a zygote.
Day 6
Zygote is down the Fallopian tube.
Cells divide to form a sphere
Day 7-14
Zygote implants on the uterus lining.
Embryonic Stage
Involves the development of major structures and organs.
Period of intense vulnerability.
Week 3
Cells differentiate
Neural tube begins to form
Heart beating by end of week
Week 4
Heart visible
Blood vessels and lungs begin to develop
Neural tube closes
Week 6 Limbs visible Nose and ears develop Facial structures fuse Brain has divided into 3 main sections
Week 8 Facial features present Fingers and toes present All major organs present Around 1.5 inches long
Foetal Period
Lasts roughly 32 weeks.
Continued development of organs.
Viability starts around 23-24 weeks.
Foetal Behaviour
Movement starts around 5-6 weeks.
Behaviours that develop: Moving limbs, head Swallowing Breathing Hiccuping
Behaviour is cyclical
Foetal Development
By week 16, foetuses can experience taste and smell. Amniotic fluid has different tastes and smell.
Baby swallows roughly 1 litre a day.
Whatever you taste, baby tastes.
What is eaten here can influence baby food preferences.
Foetal Development- hearing
9 weeks
Ears begin to develop
18 weeks
Babies can hear sounds
25 weeks
Foetus can recognise and respond to the mother’s voice.
Foetal Development: Teratogens
Foreign agent that can cause abnormalities in the foetus and embryo.
Examples:
Illegal drugs
Legal, medicinal drugs
Alcohol/Tobacco
Disease
Teratogens: Drugs
Cocaine
Growth retardation, irritability, withdrawal symptoms, hyper activity.
Heroin
Low birth weight, shrunken head circumference, cognitive impairments.
Smoking
Lower birth weight, growth retardation, premature birth.
Thalidomide
50% mortality rate, severe birth defects in limbs, eyes, heart and brain.
Teratogens: Disease
Rubella
Deafness, cataracts, heart defects.
Chickenpox
Skin scarring, eye, brain, limb and stomach abnormalities.
If developed 48 hours before birth, risk of neonatal varicella.
HIV
Facial deformities, HIV
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome
Limb and facial malformations. Growth retardation. Poor coordination. Hyperactivity. Kidney defects. Vision/hearing issues. Delayed Development in speech and social skills. Distinctive facial abnormalities.
Rooting Reflex
Stroke infants cheek
Infant turns head to search with mouth.
Disappears after 3-4 months.
Palmer and Planter Reflex
Pressure against palm or sole of foot.
Grasping, capable of supporting own weight.
Disappears after 3-4 months.
Moro Reflex
Startle infant or remove head support.
Extends and then brings together arms, fans and then clenches fingers.
Disappears 7-8 months.
Walking Reflex
Child held under arms (head supported).
Stepping motion.
Disappears 2 months.
Innate Sensory Abilities
Taste
Sensitivity to tastes and smells develop before birth.
Infants have a sweet tooth.
Hearing
Well developed, can hear normal range of human voice.
Visual Acuity
20/200 (normal adult vision 20/20).
Optimal focus fixed at 18-20cm.
Assimilation and Acommodation
Assimilation
Process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema.
Accommodation
Process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new information.
Piaget’s Stages
Sensorimotor
0-24 months (Infancy)
Pre-operational
2-7 years (early childhood)
Concrete Operational
7-11 years (late childhood)
Formal Operational
11 years plus
Sensorimotor Stage
0-1 months
Exercise of innate reflexes
2-3 months
Development of schemas, Perception begins, beginning of co-ordination of schemas
4-8 months
Outward directed activity, reinforced behaviour
8-12 months
Intentional means-end behaviour
12-18 months
Trial and error learning
18 months +
Symbolic thought
Object Concept
Initially
Objects are not independent of infant.
0-8 months
Objects out of sight, out of mind. No search for covered objects.
9-17 months
Begin to understand object permanence
A not B Error
Object is placed under cover in front of infant.
Child removes cover to find object.
The object is placed under a second cloth.
The child searches for object under original cloth.
The child has not grasped that the object is independent of their actions.
Pre-operational Thinking
Development of symbolic function.
Beginning to represent actions mentally.
Egocentric
Think intuitively rather than logically.
Conservation Failure
Children under 7 years fail to conserve number equality.
Lack understanding of basic logical principles - reversibility and compensation.
Concrete Operational Period
Success on these tasks = evidence that thinking is “Operational”.
Child can reason logically about changes and can coordinate different perspectives only with respect to concrete (real/observable) objects.
Formal Operational Stage
Logical thinking about abstract concepts and possibilities.
Systematic testing of hypotheses.
Ability to reason in purely symbolic terms.
Five Fundamentals of Counting
One to One Correspondence
One thing, on count
Stable Order
123 not 321
Cardinality
Final number stated is the count
Order Irrelevance
Objects can be counted in any order
Abstraction
Anything can be counted
Development of Attachment
0-6 Weeks
Preattachment
Infant produces innate signals to gain comfort.
6 weeks to 7 months
Attachment in the Making
Preference for familiar people
Development of the attachment bond
7-18 months Clear cut attachment Seek out regular care givers Separation protest, wariness of strangers Secure base is formed
2 years onward
Reciprocal relationship
Child has increased understanding of relationship
Nobel Savage vs Original Sin
The noble savage was an idealised concept of uncivilised humans as innately good until exposed to corrupting influences of civilisation.
Belief in original sin which considers all humans morally inadequate.
Parenting Styles
Permissive low on control high on warmth impulsive and immature children more dependent on adults
Authoritarian high on control low on warmth children lack confidence show aggression when frustrated
Authoritative-Reciprocal high on control high on warmth well behaved children self confident and curious
Key Processes of Brain Development
Neurogenesis
formation of new neutrons
Neuronal Pruning
culling of neurons
Synaptogenesis
forming new connections
Synaptic Pruning
culling of connections
Grey and White Matter
Grey Matter
cell bosies if soma and unmyelinated axons.
White Matter
myelinated axons.
Adolescents have a higher volume of white matter and a lower form of grey matter compared to children.
Risk Taking
Hessler and Katz (2010)
Adolescents with poor understanding and regulation of emotions took more risks.
Romer et al. (2011)
Adolescents with poorer executive functioning took more risks.
Poor self regulation aged 9-10 predicted risk taking aged 14-16.
Parent-teen Relations and Risk-Taking
Authoritative parent style liked to low risk taking.
Piko and Balazs (2012) increased likelihood to smoking and drinking 12-22 year olds when:
Low emotional responsiveness of parents
Lack of identification with parents
Negative family interactions.
Infant Depression
Key Symptoms
irritability, withdrawal, loss of pleasure, guilt.
Linked to:
lack of attachment
parental depression
later depression
Childhood Depression
Defined as:
low mood and loss of interest in life.
Diagnosis: depressed mood and irritability weight and sleep changes guilt lack of concentration morbid thoughts social isolation
5/6 year olds with depression more likely to be depressed in later life and struggle at school. Psychotherapy helpful, antidepressants not.
Adolescent Depression
Genetic and Biological Influences imbalances of serotonin and cortisol.
Environmental and Family Influences
losses or stressful events
abuse or neglect
Often family history of mental health issues.
Sex Differences
girls>boys from age 12 onwards
girls use ruminative coping more
Antidepressants improve severe symptoms but may have side effects.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy effective in mild to moderate depression.
Autism Symptoms
Unusual Patterns of Social Behaviour
little interest in people
fail to understand theory of mind
lack of emotional skills
Language Difficulties
Routine Behaviours
relative movement patterns
cannot cope if routine interrupted
Causes of Autism
Genetic component seems certain though no specific genes linked.
Brain Abnormalities
Benaron (2009) proliferation of neurons in frontal lobes in infancy in autism.
Perinatal injury or infection.
ADHD
Definition
difficulty concentrating, impulsivity.
Diagnosis
usually early primary school
more common in boys
Two Types of ADHD
Inattentive
distractible, failures of cognitive inhibition.
Hyperactive
impulsive, loud, failures of behavioural inhibition.
Diagnostic Criteria symptoms listed above begin before age 7 present for at least 6 months impairments in multiple settings
Risk Factors for ADHD
Cigarette Exposure Alcohol Exposure Low Birth Weight Psychosocial Adversity Parental ADHD
Theories on Causes of ADHD
Barkley (2006)
cognitive defects - behavioural disinhibition
abnormalities of structure and function of frontal lobes
Possible Causes:
abnormal brain function
genetic factors
pregnancy complications
ADHD Treatments
Pharmacological (Ritalin etc)
used since 1937
safe and effective
adverse effects
Psychosocial (parent and child behaviour training)
complex to develop and deliver
fierce controversy about efficacy
Dietary (elimination of food colourings)
controversy about efficacy
Changes in Neurons with Age
Fewer Neurons in older adult brains
5-10% loss in 65 compared to 20 year old
Neurogenesis can still occur.
Increase with age in:
Neurofibrillary tangles
Amyloid plaques: lumps of dying neurons.
Frontal Lobe Changes with Age
Brain size decreases 10-15% in old age.
Frontal Lobe Structure:
volume at 70% = 17% less than at 20
Frontal Lobe blood flow:
At rest: older adults less frontal activation than young.
During memory/executive functioning: older adults more frontal activation than young.
Hippocampus Changes with Age
Evidence of neuronal loss and structural shrinkage.
Lye at al. (2004)
Hippocampal size related to memory impairment in 102 participants ages 81-94.
Memory Changes with Age
Short Term Memory
retain 1-9 items for up to a minute
little age effect on digit span.
Working Memory
store and transform information
involved in reading, mental arithmetic etc
older adults have impaired working memory.
Long Term Memory
remember information for >10 minutes
older adults recall fewer word, make more errors and less likely to use efficient strategies.
Procedural and Semantic Memory
Procedural Memory
acquired skills regained in memory e.g. driving a car.
Semantic Memory
internal encyclopaedia e.g. vocabulary.
Not generally affected by age.
Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence
novel problem solving
Crystallised Intelligence
knowledge
Older adults have poorer fluid intelligence and improved crystallised intelligence.
Factors Predicting Preserved Intelligence
Above average education, complex job. Flexible personality. Engagement in social-cognitive activities. Good speed and attention. Good health and fitness.
Regulation of Emotions in Old Age
Older adults rate themselves as good at:
control of emotions such as anger.
using effective strategies to manage emotions.
Older adults show deactivation of the amygdala while viewing negative pictures.
Risk Factors for Depression in Old Age
Physical illness
Caregiver responsibilities
Reduction in social contact
Frontal Lobe atrophy
Grand parenting
Most of those aged 65+ have grandchildren.
Most grandparents have fairly regular contact.
Grandparents providing childcare had better executive function than those who did not.
Widowhood
For those aged 65+, 15% of men age widowers and >50% of women are widowers.
Factors that make coping more difficult: very traditional marriage sudden death social isolation income loss
Retirement
Positive Aspects:
increased leisure
resumption of education
away from workplace stress.
Negative Aspects:
decreased income
loss of status/identity
change relationship with spouse.
Wellbeing higher if CHOOSE to retire.
Social Networks in Old Age
Total social network smaller in those 70+
- older, fewer friendships
- number of close attachments stable
- size of family networks stable across lifespan
Friendships:
- quality and quantity of friendships strongly linked to wellbeing.
- life satisfaction more friendly related to contact with friends than relatives.
Social Isolation in Old Age
Social isolation in Old Age predicts:
- risky health behaviours and poor nutrition.
- cognitive decline and dementia
- risk of stroke and heart attack.
