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unit 1 - h&s > lifespan development > Flashcards

lifespan development Flashcards

1
Q

what is growth?

A

growth is an increase in measurable quantities e.g. height, weight

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2
Q

principles of growth

A

growth rates are not constant, different parts of the body grow at different rates, growth rates tend to vary between children and the growth rate of boys is usually faster on average than that of girls, as men tend to be taller than woman

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3
Q

measuring height

A

infants grown rapidly and will reach roughly half their adult height by the age of two, adolescents experience growth spurts during puberty and full height is reached by the start of early adulthood

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4
Q

head dimensions

A

head circumference is measured at birth and at 6-8 weeks to identify any abnormality in brain or skull growth, skull growth is faster in the 1st two years of life but continues into early adulthood. head circumferences is measured across the forehead, just above the ears and at the midpoint of the back and the head

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5
Q

recording growth

A

growth is an indicator of children’s health and wellbeing, measurements are plotted on a growth chart. centile lines represent the values of measurement from a a large number of children to show ‘norms’ of growth in each age group. growth charts give the length or height, weight and head dimensions expected at a particular age, comparing children’s growth against norms is important to identify signs of ill health and development problems, growth charts are different for both boys and girls as their expected rate of growth varies.

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6
Q

what is development?

A

acquiring skills and abilities in an orderly sequence, head to toe, inside and out

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7
Q

what are the 4 areas of development?

A

physical, intellectual, emotional and social

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8
Q

physical development

A

growth and other physical changes that happen to our body throughout life

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9
Q

intellectual/cognitive development

A

the development if language, memory and thinking skills

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10
Q

emotional development

A

the ability to cope with feelings about ourselves and towards others

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11
Q

social development

A

the ability to form friendships and relationships, and to learn to be independent

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12
Q

developmental milestones

A

the rate of development may vary between individuals but it follows the same sequence, with each stage called a milestone (developmental norm), development is observed and cannot be measured in the same way as growth

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13
Q

what are gross motor skills?

A

they allow children to control the large muscles in their torso, arms, legs, hands and feet.

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14
Q

gross motor skills in infancy

A

infancy develop their gross motor skills from the head down, around six months, infants gradually control muscles in their neck an back so they can roll, sit and crawl. at around 11-13 months, the muscles in their legs develop so that they can stand, cruise and walk. at around 2 years, infants can climb onto low furniture and propel a sit on toy, and at 2 and half yrs they can kick a ball.

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15
Q

gross motor activity

A

crawling, walking, running, balancing, coordinating, bending, climbing, pulling, pushing, kicking, scooting, jumping, skipping

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16
Q

3-4 ; gross motor skills

A
  • they can pedal and control a bicycle
  • they can hope on one foot
  • they can throw a ball and they can aim it
  • they can run forwards and backwards
  • they can balance and walk along a line
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17
Q

5-8 ; gross motor skills

A
  • they can ride a bicycle
  • they can hop, skip and jump with confidence
  • they can accurately throw and catch a ball
  • they can skip with a rope
  • they can balance on a low beam
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18
Q

what is fine motor skills?

A

they are important in controlling and coordinating movement of the small muscles in the fingers and hands

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19
Q

fine motor skills & development

A
  • newborns - able to grasp an adult’s finger
  • 3 months - hold a rattle for a short amount of time
  • 6 months - grasp a toy and pass it to his other hand
  • 12 months - l pick up small objects using a pincer grip
  • 18 months - build blocks and use spoon and make marks with crayons using a palmar grasp
  • 2 yrs - will be able to shoes on and control crayon to draw circles and dots
  • 3 yrs - developing tripod grasp, can use fork and spoon, turn the pages of a book, button and unbutton clothing
  • 4 yrs - will be able to thread small beads and color in pictures
  • 5 yrs - control muscles in fingers to manipulate the block and use hand eye coordination to fit the piece into the correct place, can write own name forming letters correctly
  • 8 yrs - can use joined up handwriting
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20
Q

activities that support fine motor skills

A
  • gripping is where they have the strength in fingers and hands to hold an object firmly; activities: holding a rattle, tricycle handle or spoon
  • manipulation is where they have the skillful movement of objects using fingers and hands, such as tuning, twisting and passing objects from one hand to another; activities: building with block, playing a musical instrument, playing with and placing farm animals or cars
  • hand eye coordination is the control of eye movement at the same time as finger and hand movement; activities: writing, sewing or completing jigsaw puzzles
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21
Q

what are the stages of development?

A

infancy - 0-2
early childhood - 3-8
adolescence - 9-18
early adulthood - 19-45
middle adulthood - 46-65
later adulthood - 65+

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22
Q

puberty (adolescence)

A

during adolescence, young people experience a physical change during puberty, this takes place in girls around 11-years and in boys around 13-years. puberty starts when a hormone in the brain sends a signal to the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that stimulate the ovaries in girls and the testes in boys to produce sex hormones. during this stage, a young persons height can increase rapidly over a short time - this is known as a growth spurt.

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23
Q

the role of hormone in sexual development

A

boys - the hormone testosterone is produced by the testes. stimulates growth of the penis and testes, pubic hair growth, the development of muscle and lowering of the voice.
girls - the hormones estrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovaries. they stimulate the growth of breasts and reproductive system and help to regulate the menstrual cycle.

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24
Q

primary sexual characteristics

A

these are the processes that are related to the sex organs that are present at birth and mature when sex hormones are released.
girls:
- menstruation begins
- uterus and vagina grow
- ovulation occurs

boys:
- penis enlargens
- prostate gland produces secretions
- testes enlarge and produce sperm

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25
Q

secondary sexual characteristics

A

these are not necessary for reproduction. they develop when sex hormones are released.
girls:
- growth of armpit and pubic hair
- increased layers of fat under the skin
- breasts enlarge
- growth spurt
- hips widen

boys:
- growth of facial hair
- growth of armpit, chest and pubic hair
- increased muscle
- growth spurt
- larynx grows, causing voice to deepen

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26
Q

maturation (early adulthood)

A
  • motor coordination is at its peak
  • physical strength and stamina is at its peak
  • full height is reached
  • reaction time is quickest
  • women are at their most fertile and can become pregnant and lactate
  • hand eye coordination is at its peak
  • sexual characteristics are fully developed
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27
Q

fertility and perimenopause (early adulthood)

A

at the beginning of this life stage, women are at their most fertile. around 40-45 years old, they reach the end of their reproductive years. this period is called the perimenopause.
- estrogen decreases
- menstruation becomes less frequent
- ovulation is regular

during menopause, the reduction in estrogen causes physical and emotional symptoms that include:
- hot flushes
- night sweats
- mood swings
- loss of libido
- vaginal dryness

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28
Q

ageing (middle adulthood)

A

signs:
- greying hair
- loss of muscle tone, strength and stamina
- body shape may change with an increase in or loss of weight
- men begin to lose hair
- women are no longer fertile as menstruation ends
- loss of height

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29
Q

the role of sex hormones in females

A
  • estrogen plays the most important role in female sexuality and regulates ovulation
  • progesterone is necessary for the implantation of fertilized eggs in the uterus, the maintenance of pregnancy and sexual health
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30
Q

symptoms of menopause = hormonal changes

A

reduction in estrogen causes:
- the ovaries to stop producing eggs
- thinning and shrinkage of the vagina
- affects the hypothalamus in the brain, which regulates temperature, causing hot flushes and night sweats
- affects the health of hair, skin and nails
- may cause mood swings, as estrogen regulates neurotransmitters that affect mood

reduction in estrogen and progesterone:
- gradually stops menstruation
- impacts libido

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31
Q

effects of ageing ; later adulthood

A

physical:
- less elasticity in the skin
- decline in strength
- loss of muscle
- loss of stamina
- less mobility in the large muscles in arms, legs and torso (gross motor skills)
- less mobility in the small muscles of the hands and fingers (fine motor skills)
- reduction in vision
- reduction in hearing
- thinning of hair on the head and pubic areas
- decline in the performance of organs
- higher susceptibility to disease and infection
- increased likelihood of injuries caused by falls
- height loss, it is caused by changes in posture and compression of the spinal discs and joints

intellectual:
ageing does not always impact on cognitive ability, but it can negatively affect how individuals process information, eg:
- memory
- recall
- speed of thinking

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32
Q

what is intellectual development?

A

intellectual development is about how individuals organise ideas and make sense of the world around them

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33
Q

types of intellectual development

A

problem solving - needed to work things out and make predictions about what might happen
language development - essential to organise and express thoughts
memory - essential for storing and recalling information
abstract thought and creative thinking - essential for thinking and discussing things that can’t be observed
moral development - needed for reasoning and making choices about how to act towards self and others

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34
Q

stages of life

A

intellectual development continues in early adulthood, by early adulthood individuals have gained knowledge, skills and experience. they use past experiences to make judgements. thinking is logical and realistic. individuals are able to think through problems and make decisions.

infancy and early childhood - this is a time of rapid intellectual development.. 90% of neuron connections are in place by the time children are 5 years old.

early/middle to later adulthood - individuals continue to learn new skills and knowledge into later adulthood, intelligence does not change but short term memory and thinking speed may decline.

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35
Q

intellectual milestones

A
  • from birth; can use all their senses to help understand the world around them.
  • at 3 years ; can ask questions, count, recognise colours and sort objects.
  • at 5 years; starting to read and write and draw in detail, can talk about the past and the future
  • at 8 years; can think more deeply, reason, talk about abstract ideas and plan
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36
Q

piaget - cognitive development

A

piaget believed that children pass through distinct developmental stages in sequence, he thought that children should be allowed to discover things for themselves through spontaneous play.
the four stages are:
sensorimotor (0-2)
pre operational (2-7)
concrete operational (7-11)
formal operational (11-18)

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37
Q

sensorimotor

A
  • from birth to 2 years
    infants learn about their environment and develop early schemas (concepts) by using all their senses to physically explore the world
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38
Q

pre operational

A
  • from 2 to 7 years
    children begin to control their environment by using symbolic behaviour, including representational words and drawings and pretend play, but are not yet able to think logically
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39
Q

concrete operational

A
  • from 7 to 11 years
    children use practical resources to help them understand the world, such as counters for mathematics. they classify, categorise and use logic to understand things they see
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40
Q

formal operational

A
  • from 11 to 18 years
    young people have the capacity for abstract thought, rational thought and problem solving
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41
Q

criticisms of his development theory

A

some critics believe that piaget underestimated children’s development and that with support they can move more quickly to the next stage of development

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42
Q

piaget’s schema theory

A

this theory explains how children use their experiences to construct their understanding of the world around them
the stages consist of :
- assimilation
- equilibrium
- disequilibrium
- accommodation

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43
Q

schema breakdown

A

assimilation - the child constructs an understanding or concept (schema) ; the child has developed a schema about sand
equilibrium - the child’s experience fits in with their schema ; the child’s experience in the nursery sandpit fits with their schema
disequilibrium - a new experience disturbs the child’s schema ; water is added to the sandpit, the sand behaves differently which upsets the child’s schema
accommodation - the child’s understanding changes to take account of the new experience; the child changes their schema to accommodate their new experience of sand. they develop a schema.

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44
Q

piaget - conservation

A

piaget carried out tests to show the stage hen children begin to reason and think logically
- the child is 4, he is shown two identical glasses with the sane amount of water in each
- the water from another glass is poured into a tall, narrow beaker
- the child believes that the tall, narrow beaker contains more water

conservation refers to children’s understanding that the amount remains the same even when the container’s shape has changed. piaget also used tests using solids, weight and number.

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45
Q

what does piaget’s test show?

A
  • children under 7 years old cannot conserve because they cannot think about more than one aspect of a situation at one time
  • by the operational stage, children can think logically so understand that the quantity of water stays the same when poured into a differently shaped container.
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46
Q

conservation & egocentrism

A
  • conservation refers to the children’s understanding that the amount remains the same even when the container’s shape has changed. piaget also used tests using solids, weight and number.
  • egocentrism is based on the fact that piaget believed that, until children are 7 years old, they only see things from their own perspective, he used his swiss mountain test to prove his theory of egocentrism
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47
Q

criticisms of piaget

A
  • piaget sometimes underestimated children’s rate of development
  • with support, children can develop more advanced concepts
  • children can be given experiences that help them to move through the stages at a faster rate
  • some children can see things from the perspective of others before the age 7
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48
Q

what is language development?

A

language development involves communication through articulation and receptive speech.

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49
Q

stages of language development

A

infancy :
0-3 months:
- make mouth movements in response to parent
- cries to ask for food or comfort
6-12 months:
- understands some words, such as ‘byebye’
- makes sounds such as ‘gaga’
18 months:
- can say between six and ten words
- can follow simple instructions

early childhood:
2-3 years:
- links words together, for example, ‘me car’
- vocabulary increasing to approximately 200 words at 2 and a half yrs
3-5 years:
- uses simple sentences
- asks questions
- may use incorrect forms of words, for example ‘i good’
8 years:
- speaks in complex sentences
- can reason and explain

adolescence:
9-19 years:
- developing vocabulary
- uses language to explore abstract ideas

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50
Q

chomsky

A

chomsky proposed the LAD (language acquisition device) as the hypothetical part of the human mind that allows infants to acquire and produce language.
he suggested that humans are:
- born with a structure in their brain that enables them to acquire language
- have a critical period for first language development in the first years of life
- all follow the same pattern of language development
- have an innate understanding of the structure of language (called universal grammar) that is the basis for all languages (subject, verb, object)

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51
Q

criticisms of chomsky

A
  • lack of scientific evidence of innate understanding of structure of language
  • the rate of language development is affected by the degree of interactions with others
  • does not take into account that a language acquisition support system is required
  • chomsky put emphasis on grammar in sentence development rather than meanings
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52
Q

theories of attachment

A

an attachment is an emotional bond that is formed between infants and young children and their main caregiver

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53
Q

bowlby’s theory of attachment

A

infants are biologically pre programmed to form attachments:
- attachment to the primary caregiver is essential
- a disruption to attachment has a negative impact on development
- attachment to the primary caregiver is a model for future attachments
- infancy is a critical period for developing attachments
- in their early months, infants form one primary attachment

54
Q

schaffer & emerson

A

birth to 3 months - they respond to the caregiver
4-7 months - shows preference for primary caregiver but accepts care from others
7-9 months - prefers primary caregiver and seeks comfort from them, unhappy when seperated and shows fear of strangers
- 10 months+ - begins to develop attachments with others who respond to them, by 18 months most infants have formed multiple attachments

55
Q

ainsworth’s strange situation

A

classified main three types into attachments, based on a study of children’s reactions when parted from a parent

56
Q

secure

A

in tune with their child and their emotions; will show distress when primary caregiver leaves, and greets them when they return, seeks comfort from caregiver when upset, happy with strangers when caregiver is present

57
Q

insecure avoidant

A

unavailable to child, rejects them; does not show distress when primary caregiver leaves, continues to explore the environment, may go to a stranger for comfort

58
Q

insecure resistant

A

inconsistent in meeting the child’s needs, shows distress when primary caregiver leaves but resists contact on their return, shows anxiety and insecurity

59
Q

disrupted attachment

A

may cause:
- anxiety
- difficulty in forming relationships
- depressive disorders
- delinquency
- learning disorders

60
Q

self concept

A

self concept is an individual’s evaluation of their own self worth, consist of self esteem and self concept

61
Q

self image

A

how individual’s view themselves, influenced by how they are perceived by others. for example, a slim person might perceive themselves as overweight.

62
Q

self esteem

A

how individuals value and feel about the knowledge they have of themselves. one person might think, ‘i cant do it, i’m not good enough’, a person’s self esteem is not constant and may change from time to time depending on an individual’s circumstances

63
Q

factors that may impact on self image and self esteem

A
  • family and culture
  • achievement, eg school or work
  • life experiences
  • life circumstances eg employment
  • sexual orientation
  • physical development/health
  • the attitudes of others
  • emotional development, including early attachment
64
Q

self image ; + and -

A

+ feels happy about personal appearance and abilities
+ receives good feedback from others about appearance and abilities
+ compares self favourable with others
- feels unattractive or less intelligent than others
- receive negative comments from others about appearance or abilities
- compares self negatively against ‘perfect’ images in magazines/on tv

65
Q

self image; + and -

A

+ feels confident
+ willing to try new things
+ copes well under pressure
- feels worthless
- less likely to try new things
- less likely to cope well in new or difficult situations

66
Q

stages of play - basis

A

all children play, infants start to play when they are just a few months old, play promotes all areas of development
- the stages of play may vary between children. all children will pass through these stages. stages are influenced by children’s language and intellectual development. initially children play alone, then alongside other children, and eventually share and cooperate during play.

67
Q

stages of play - ages

A

0-2 years, solo play.
children play alone with toys such as rattles, shakers and balls. they may be aware that other infants are present but do not attempt to play with them.
2-3 years, parallel play.
children are aware of other children. they may copy each other but they do not interact.
3 years and over, cooperative play. children share ideas and resources in the same activity, they interact and agree roles to develop their play towards a shared goal.

68
Q

language and play

A
  • play is important for children to develop their vocabulary
  • children need language to be able to communicate and negotiate during cooperative play
69
Q

symbols and play

A
  • infants use all their senses to find out about the world around them
  • children in the pre operational stage learn best through observational play, the provision of natural materials indoors and outdoors encourages curiosity and exploratory learning
70
Q

friendships and relationships

A

they are essential for healthy human development
- building friendships involves learning to value others and developing skills to be able to interact with individuals and groups
- a breakdown in relationships can have a negative impact on social and emotional development and health

71
Q

more on building friendships

A

close friendships - from around 3 years old, children start to develop special friendships
- these make individuals feel secure and confident
- they also promote independence and self esteem

friendships with a wider group of friends :
- as children widen their circle of friends, they become more confident and independent
- adolescents are greatly influenced by the views of their friends, which may affect their self image
- wider friendships continue to be important in adulthood for positive emotional and social development

72
Q

developing relationships

A

relationships involve developing skills to interact with others in different situations
- formal relationships develop between individuals such as colleagues or teacher and pupil; positive formal relationships are important for good self esteem and self image
- intimate relationships may begin in adolescence and cognitive, and new ones form throughout life, close intimate relationships result in greater contentment, emotional security and positive self image
- informal relationships are built between individuals and family or significant people they start with attachments in infancy, strong informal relationships promote contentment and the confidence to deal with life events, they help to build other informal, formal and intimate relationships throughout life

73
Q

healthy vs unhealthy relationships

A

healthy
- acceptance
- trust
- compromise
- respect
- responsibility
- honesty

unhealthy
- stress
- isolation
- distrust
- blame
- low self esteem
- insecurity

74
Q

social development and independence

A

independence involves doing things for oneself and making decisions without relying on others, it is closely linked to social and emotional development

75
Q

the development of independence through the life stages

A

infancy:
- depends on others for care
- will play alone but likes a familiar adult close by

early childhood:
- develops the necessary skills to become more independent in personal care
- develops likes and dislikes and can make limited decisions

adolescence:
- enjoys more freedom, more independent decisions can be made, e.g. about lifestyle and education but emotions make affect this ability
- takes responsibility for own actions but influenced by others

early adulthood:
- may live with parents but is independent
- makes own decisions about personal life and career
- often a time for relationships, marriage and starting a family

middle adulthood:
- becomes increasingly independent
- increased freedom with life changes e.g. dependent children leave home, retirement

later adulthood:
- continues to make own decisions
- may have financial constraints if relying on state pension
- changes in mental and physical capacity may gradually reduce ability to make own decisions and care for self

76
Q

what is independence influenced by?

A
  • stage of emotional development
  • physical disability
  • health
  • culture
  • stage on social development
77
Q

negative and positive behaviours

A

peer pressure - describes a person or group influencing an individual to change their behaviour, values or beliefs so they conform to, and become socially accepted by, a peer group. adolescents may pressurise others to follow their lead on school rules, home rules and lifestyle

possible negative behaviours due to peer pressure:
- smoking, using alcohol and drugs
- truancy
- bullying
- vandalising
- stealing
- disrespect

possible positive behaviours due to peer pressure:
- taking part in sport
- studying
- befriending
- respecting others
- learning a new skill
- eating healthy foods
- keeping safe if taking part in sex

78
Q

Gesell’s maturation theory

A
  • helps how to explain the process of maturing and is related to overall development
    Gesell based his theory on his belief that:
  • development is genetically determined from birth; a biological process children follow in the same orderly sequence in their development
  • the pace of development may vary depending on their physical and intellectual development

Gesell observed the behaviours of many children, from which he determined averages or ‘norms’ which he called milestones of development, his milestones describe children’s physical, social and emotional development

79
Q

positives and negatives of Gesell

A

positives:
- he determined typical norms of development hat are still used today
- he used advanced methodology in observations of behaviour of large numbers of children

negatives:
- he did not consider the influence of individual or cultural differences in children
- he believed that the norms of development he described were desirable

80
Q

social learning theory - bandura

A
  • slt suggests that the way children behave is an interaction between personal and environmental factors
  • based on the belief that learning happens through observing, imitating and modelling the behaviours of others
    1. attention - learning takes place when a child focuses their attention on a person who ‘models’ the behaviour, children are more likely to imitate the behaviour o someone they identify with or admire
    2. retention - what the child has observed is retained in their memory to be used when an opportunity occurs
    3. reproduction - what has been learned is reproduced or imitated; it may be rehearsed in the child’s mind first and then imitated when there is an opportunity
    4. reinforce - children feel motivated because they anticipate intrinsic or extrinsic rewards, children will be motivated to repeat or stop the behaviour, depending on the reinforcement
81
Q

reinforcement

A

behaviour may be repeated or resisted - this is reinforcement and may be positive or negative

positive reinforcement - the behaviour is repeated because of personal satisfaction or rewards
negative reinforcement - the behaviour is no repeated to avoid an adverse experience such as lack of satisfaction or being told off

vicarious reinforcement - children may be motivated because they see that the person or ‘model’ they observe is getting satisfaction or positive feedback
- children may also resist imitating the action because the model receives negative feedback from their action

82
Q

bobo doll experiment

A

children were shown adults being aggressive or non aggressive towards the bobo doll, the aggressive adults were either rewarded, reprimanded or had no consequence for their behaviour. the experiment was designed by bandura to show that:
- children would copy the aggressive behaviour of another person
- the outcome for the adult impacted on the likelihood of children copying the behaviour
the result:
- children learned aggressive behaviour through observation
- children were more likely to imitate an adult who was rewarded for aggressive behaviour than one who was reprimanded

83
Q

nature vs nurture

A

nature - the influence of innate/inherited features on development, based on the assumption that children are genetically pre programmed, they have inherited skills, abilities and behaviours from their parents
nature and nurture - Piaget accepted that children develop in a predestined way but believed experiences help them to develop new concepts
nurture - the influence of environment and nurturing, based on the assumption that characteristics are acquired and can be shaped through observation

84
Q

genetic predispositions & stress diathesis model

A

an individuals genetic predispositions (nature) can be triggered by their environment and life experiences (nurture)

stress diathesis:
nature - diathesis:
a predisposition of vulnerability to mental disorders due to an abnormality of the brain or neurotransmitters (genetic/biological factors)
nurture - stresses: traumatic events in a person’s life e.g. relationships, abuse, culture (environmental factors)

85
Q

genetic factors

A
  • can affect physical growth , development, health and appearance

genetic predisposition to conditions:
genes are sets of instructions to the cells that determine growth and development, individuals inherit 23 pairs of chromosomes, which contain genes. health conditions can arise from defective inherited genes.

dominant genes;
- can be passed on from one parent or both. the likelihood of developing a condition depends upon whether the defective gene is recessive or dominant.

a dominant gene needs only to be passed on by one parent for the child to develop a condition for example:

  • brittle bone disease; causes bones to break easily
  • huntington’s disease; causes involuntary movement, cognitive and psychiatric disorders

recessive genes:
must be passed on form both parents for the child to develop the condition, for example:

  • cystic fibrosis; causes a build up of thick, sticky mucus that can damage the lungs
  • phenylketonuria (PKU); causes intellectual disability and developmental delay due to build of amino acids
  • duchenne muscular dystrophy; causes muscle weakness and wasting resulting in difficulty with motor skills and walking

if the defective gene is passed form one parent only, the child becomes a carrier

86
Q

conditions caused by an abnormality in an individual’s chromosomes

A
  • down’s syndrome - individuals have an extra copy of chromosome 21, this causes characteristic facial features, growth delay and intellectual disability
    klinefelter syndrome - boys have an extra x chromosome, causing problems during,, or a delay in puberty
    colour blindness - caused by mutations in the x chromosome, s is more common in males, it makes it difficult to distinguish colours
87
Q

genetic susceptibility to disease

A

this means an increased likelihood of developing a disease because of an individual’s genetic makeup, it can lead to diseases such as:
- cancer
- high blood cholesterol
- diabetes

other factors affecting disease:
- the likelihood of developing diseases can be increased or reduced by:
- environmental factors
- lifestyle
- life events
- availability of preventative treatment

88
Q

biological factors

A
  • affects living organisms
    biological factors:
    the mothers lifestyle during pregnancy can affect the health and development of the unborn child, for example, lifestyle factors that may affect the unborn child include:
  • poor diet
  • drug use
  • alcohol use
  • smoking

effects on developing child:
the effects of poor lifestyle choices in pregnancy include :
- low birth weight
- premature birth
- long term health problems
- learning disabilities
- developmental delay
- congenital effects (defects in the developing foetus)

89
Q

maternal infections & foetal alcohol syndrome

A

infections such as rubella or cytomegalovirus can be passed to the baby in the womb and may cause:
- health problems
- congenital defects
- still birth
- miscarriage

foetal alcohol syndrome is caused by exposure to alcohol in the womb, symptoms can include:
- small head circumference
- neurological problems
- abnormal growth
- developmental delay
- facial abnormalities

90
Q

congenital anomalies

A

these are defects in the developing foetus, such as congenital heart disease or club foot, anomalies may be detected before birth, during birth or later in life

factors contributing to congenital anomalies:
- genetic, such as down syndrome
- nutritional, such as deficiency in foetus, which increases the risk of neural tube defect (spina bifida)
- environmental, such as maternal exposure to pesticides, chemicals, radiation or alcohol or tobacco, causing abnormal growth
- infections, such as rubella, resulting in deafness and health problems

91
Q

environmental factors

A

pollution happens when harmful substances contains the atmosphere, pollutants are taken into the body via the nose and mouth or through the skin.

outdoor pollutants:
- traffic fumes, domestic fumes, industry, pesticides

indoor pollutants;
- cleaning chemicals, aerosols, cigarette smoke, mould/bacteria

conditions caused by pollutants:
- respiratory disorders:
bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer
- cardiovascular problems:
artery blockage, heart attack
- allergies: wheezing, allergic rhinitis, anaphylactic shock

poor housing condiitons:
these an lead to short term or longer term health conditions

possible effects of housing conditions:
- poor ventilation/damp and mould would lead to respiratory disorders
- overcrowding can lead to anxiety and depression
- inadequate heating could lead to hypothermia
- lack of outdoor space can lead to cardiovascular problems
- poor sanitation and vermin can lead to risk of infection

92
Q

health and social services

A
  • are available to support individuals with their health and social care needs, access to services can be difficult as availability can vary between different geographical areas

health services:
urgent/emergency care, sexual health, mental health, pharmacy, dental eye care, walk in centres, home nursing, chronic health care, community health, maternity services, paediatric care

both:
advisory services, advocacy, discharge planning, transport, nursing home, end of life care, safeguarding

adult and children’s social care:
day care centres and luncheon clubs, supported living, residential care, benefits; financial support, home care, housing, children’s services

93
Q

access to services can prove difficult for some people

A

service availability;
- specialist services or drugs are not available in some geographical areas
- there may be restrictions on delivery or service opening times
- pressures on services because of increased demand e.g. winter flu, may limit availability
- waiting times are affected by lack of availability of specialists and hospital beds
- lack of public transport to take individuals to and from services

individual circumstances;
- mobility difficulties restrict physical access
- learning and/or communication difficulties can impact on a person’s understanding of and contact with available services
- personal circumstances such as caring for others or working long hours, can make attending services difficult

94
Q

social factors - family dysfunction

A

dysfunctional families;
- members of the family do not carry out their responsibilities
- needs of family members are not met
- family members display negativity towards each other
- sibling rivalry and conflict
- abuse may happen
- use of coercion and blame

reasons for dysfunction;
- parents perpetuate their own dysfunctional upbringing
- untreated medical illness in one or more family members
- alcohol or drug abuse by one or more members in the family

95
Q

impact of dysfunction

A

members of dysfunctional families have negative self concept and this can lead to difficulty building friendships and relationships

possible effects of parental divorce or separation:
- psychological problems
- guilt
- health problems
- increased likelihood of drug or alcohol use
- isolation
- stress

96
Q

parenting styles

A

demanding but supportive - authoritative; children are accepted for who they are, there is mutual love and respect
- children often have self control, confidence and have high self esteem

demanding but unsupportive - authoritarian; parents assert their authority, children are controlled
- children may have poor social skills and low self esteem

undemanding but supportive - permissive; parents are indulgent; they do not attempt to control behaviour
- children may be self confident, impulsive and have difficulty building friendships

undemanding and unsupportive - disengaged/uninvolved; parents are neglectful and show lack of interest, there is poor attachment
- children may have low confidence and self esteem and hide their emotions

97
Q

social factors - bullying

A

bullying can happen at any life stage and it has a negative effect on everyone involved - the victim, the bully and any onlookers

bullying can take different forms:
1. verbal, using words to hurt and this includes:
- name calling
- making racist, sexist, or disablist comments/slurs
- making hurtful comments
- making threats
- ridiculing

  1. emotional, causing psychological hurt and this includes:
    - spreading rumours
    - excluding
    - ignoring
    - stalking
  2. physical, using force and this includes:
    hitting, punching, pushing, sapping, kicking, taking/hiding/damaging someone else’s property
  3. cyber bullying, using tech to hurt someone and this can include;
    - sending hurtful messages via online
    - sharing personal info without permission
    - posting inappropriate posts
    - hurtful/anonymous text messaging
98
Q

short term & long term effects

A

short term:
- stress/anxiety
- inability to cope with life events
- poor self image
- low self esteem
- eating disorders
- withdrawal from school, work and activities

long term:
bullying can have a significant psychological effect on development and wellbeing, including:
- difficulties in forming relationships
- poor academic achievement
- substance abuse
- self harm
- increased risk of suicide

99
Q

influence of culture and religion

A

development is influenced by an individual culture, the community in which they live and their beliefs culture community and beliefs influence;
- dress
- diet
- personal values
- relationships
- lifestyle
- morality

100
Q

lifestyle rules - diet

A

dietary restrictions
eg some religions forbid the consumption of certain foods, such as shellfish for jews and pork for muslims. buddhists and many hindus are vegetarian.

possible health benefits;
- high fibre and or low fat diets lower risk of high cholesterol, heart disease and high blood pressure
- reduced risk of cancers and heart disease if alcohol or stimulants are restricted

possible health risks;
- nutritional deficiencies such as ack of calcium, iron and vitamin b12, vitamin d and protein

fasting;
eg several religions have periods of fasting, such as muslims during Ramadan, jews for several days in the year and mormons on the first sunday of each month

possible health benefits;
- loss of weight, reduced cholestral levels, detoxification

possible health risks;
- heartburn, constipation, malnourishment, dehydration, exacerbation of existing conditions such as diabetes and stress

101
Q

lifestyle rules - medical

A

medival interventions eg christian scientists believe in healing through prayer and jehovah’s witnesses do not receive blood transfusions

possible health risks;
deterioration and risk of possible death

102
Q

possible social and emotional effects of culture and beliefs

A

positive:
- people share the same values, beliefs and religion
- people feel accepted and are supported by others
- people feel valued by others because of their values, beliefs and religion

negative:
- people are discriminated against because of their values, beliefs or religion
- people feel excluded because of their values, beliefs or religion
- a person’s culture is ignored or not understood

103
Q

economic factors

A
  • income and expenditure; a person’s level of income and personal wealth
  • education; the stage of education reached, educational opportunities and achievements
  • employment status; whether a person is in work or not, the type of work, whether it is a full or part time, job security and future prospects
  • lifestyle and health; being able to afford a healthy diet or access to exercise, making choices about sexual practices, alcohol, smoking and drug use that affect personal finance and the ability to keep and sustain employment
104
Q

effects of economic factors; positives

A

positives:
physical;
- manual/active jobs improve muscle tone and stamina
- lifestyle; being able to afford a healthy diet and regular exercise to keep digestive systems, circulatory systems and joints healthy

intellectual;
- being in work education or training promotes creative thinking and problem solving skills
- being able to afford a good diet and exercise can promote cognitive development

emotional;
- being in a high status job and having a good income and education may e=lead to high self image and positive self esteem
- having an adequate income and job provides opportunities and independence

social;
- being at school, college, or in training or work provides opportunities to develop friendships
- being able to afford a healthy lifestyle can lead to friendships

105
Q

effects of economic factors; negatives

A

physical;
- manual jobs may cause muscular and skeletal problems
- sedentary/desk based jobs can cause back problems, repetitive strain injury, lack of fitness and increased risk of joint problems and heart disease

intellectual development;
- being out of work, retired or in a non demanding job may cause deterioration of memory and problem solving skills
- low income and low quality lifestyle can lead to stress and loss of concentration

emotional development;
- being unemployed, having a low status job and poor academic achievement can lead to poor lifestyle choices eg drug use, unhealthy diet, negative self image and low self esteem,
- low income and poor health due to lifestyle can lead to lack of choice and independence
- concerns about lack of work or finances can lead to stress

social development;
- low income or unemployment offers fewer opportunities for building relationships
- poor lifestyle may lead to breakdown in relationships

106
Q

what are predictable life events?

A

these are life events that;
- are likely to happen to most people, such as starting school or work
- can be anticipated and prepared for
predictable events often have positive effects such as building self esteem, developing confidence, providing security or furthering learning, however changes can still cause anxiety, which may affect health and wellbeing

107
Q

what are unpredictable life events?

A

these are life events that:
- are not expected, such as an accident or serious illness
- happen with little or no warning so cannot be prepared for
some life events will happen to many people but not everyone, for example, marriage, having children, getting a promotion or serious illness

108
Q

examples of life events

A
  • moving house
  • starting school
  • marriage/partnership
  • starting a family
  • divorce
  • leaving home
  • promotion
  • redundancy
  • injury/illness
  • death of someone else
  • beginning/changing employment
  • retirement
109
Q

types of transitions

A

physical - change of environment
eg workplace, school, home

emotional - personal experiences
eg bereavement, marriage, divorce

intellectual eg university, college, job promotion

physiological eg puberty, health conditions, injury

110
Q

the effects of life events

A
  • headaches/migraines
  • mental health problems
  • anxiety
  • heart conditions
  • digestive problems
  • high blood pressure
  • stress/sleeping difficulties
111
Q

holmes-rahe social adjustment rating scale

A

believed there was a correlation between psychological illness and stressful events

the study:
1 - holmes and rahe listed 43 life events that individual may experience
2 - they applied a score to each life event, depending on the level of stress it was likely to cause
3 - patients were asked to indicate the life events they had experienced from the list
4 - patients added up the scores from their life events

the results;
holmes and rahe found there was a number of a correlation because of the units (the level and number or stressful events the individuals experienced) and their illness

112
Q

predictability & events listed

A

predictable and unpredictable life events can cause stress at any life stage, extreme stress from unpredictable life events can cause serious mental and physical problems

events listed;
holmes and rahe both listed predictable and unpredictable vents, their units allocated to each event varied depending on the event, here are some examples:
- death of a partner - 100 units
- marriage - 50 units
- retirements - 45 units
- change of school - 20 units

113
Q

cardiovascular disease and ageing

A

health factors that can exacerbate heart disease:
- genetic inheritance
- obesity
- high blood pressure
- high blood cholesterol
- diabetes

lifestyle factors that can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease:
- diet high in salt, saturated fats etc
- lack of exercise
- alcohol & smoking

  1. the heart may increase in size, causing the heart wall to thicken, making it more difficult for the heart muscles to relax and fill with blood between beats
  2. artery walls narrow due to clogging by fats called cholesterol, preventing blood from passing easily
  3. pacemaker cells decrease, causing problems in the rhythm of the heart
  4. the valves inside the heart the control the flow of the blood thicken and become stiffer
114
Q

the effects of cardiovascular disease in later life

A

negative;
loss of independence
anxiety about health
depression
anger
frustration
reduced mobility
loss of opportunity to develop new friendships

positive;
closer relationships with family members and friends
choosing to improve lifestyle

115
Q

degeneration of the nervous tissue

A

nerves are pathways that carry messages along the spinal cord between the brain and the different parts of the body, the loss of neurons in the brain leads to a decrease in the capacity of the brain to send and receive nerve impulses

degeneration of tissue can cause:
- reduction in reflexes and movement
- effects on senses
- decline in verbal capacity
- decline in short term memory
- difficulty in receiving and processing information
- increase in time takes to to react

facts about nervous tissue;
- the pace of degeneration varies between older people
- the same symptoms may be caused by illness such Alzheimer’s disease
- the brain can produce new brain cells into older age, eg stroke patients learn to speak again
- new connections between nerve cells can develop
- exercising, not smoking and cognitive activity can slow the degeneration of the nervous tissue in older people

116
Q

degeneration of sense organs can cause:

A
  • depression
  • anxiety
  • isolation
  • loss of independence
  • low self image
  • reduced opportunities for socialising because of difficulty in travelling/driving
  • difficulty in joining in conversations
  • difficulty in taking part in leisure activities eg listening to music, reading
117
Q

senses

A

taste/smell:
- the number of taste buds decrease, reducing the enjoyment of food and perhaps resulting in poor diet
- production of saliva decreases, affecting the taste and enjoyment of food
- the ability to sell decreases, reducing the ability to detect dangerous odours such as fumes or foods that have gone off

touch:
a decreased in the number of receptor cells in older age leads to:
- reduced sensitivity to temperature, which can lead to burns, frostbite or hypothermia
- reduced sensitivity to injury, which can lead to untreated pressure sores or ulcers
- increased sensitivity to touch, which can cause bruising
- skin becoming more sensitive to the sun, which can lead to sunburn or skin cancer

sight:
- visibility becomes less sharp
- cataracts may develop, causing cloudiness in vision
- the vitreous (gel) in the eye starts to shrink, causing floaters
- peripheral vision deteriorates
- eye muscles become weaker, reducing the field of vision
- there is an increased risk of age related macular degeneration which causes a gradual loss of sight

hearing:
- fluid like tubes in the inner ear, which help to maintain balance become affected, which may cause dizziness and cause falls
- the ability to hear high frequency sounds deteriorate
- distinguishing between sounds is more difficult
- tinnitus is experienced because of a build of wax or damage to the ear

118
Q

osteoarthritis

A

the physical effects of this are:
- swelling and pain in joints
- damage to the soft tissue around joints
- difficulty in walking
- difficulty in climbing stairs

the risk of osteoarthritis is increased by:
- being over 40 years of age
- obesity
- injury to joints
- genetic inheritance
- being female
- joint abnormality

119
Q

absorption of nutrients

A

with age, the body is less efficient at absorbing the nutrients it requires, this can result in malnutrition even if the person’s diet remains the same as when they were younger, the reduction of the absorption of nutrients is caused by:
- reduced production of gastric hydrochloric acid, which prevents the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates
- the deterioration of the function of the digestive organs and digestive lining

120
Q

the effects of deficiencies in essential nutrients

A

vitamin d - increases risk of osteoporosis, cancer and diabetes, and reduces the body’s ability to absorb calcium

calcium - causes bone loss and increases the risk of osteoporosis and fractures

vitamin b12 - slows the creation of red blood cells and reduces nerve function

magnesium - impacts on the immune system and function of the heart

omega 3 - increases the risk of rheumatoid arthritis and macular degeneration
potassium & weakens bones and reduces cell function and kidney function

vitamin c - slows healing and the development of healthy tissue
iron & increases the risk of anaemia

121
Q

dementia

A

facts about dementia:
- a stroke may cause dementia because when the brain’s blood supply is restricted, brain cells begin to die
- lifestyle factors such as smoking, an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise can increase the risk of dementia
- the risk of dementia increases with age
- dementia is a progressive disease - more parts of the brain ae damaged over time
- Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. it mainly affects people e over the age of 65. proteins called plaques and tangles build up in the brain, this leads to a shortage of chemicals in the brain, which affects the transmission of signals

122
Q

effects & support needs for alzheimers

A

effects of alzehimer’s disease:
- early stage;
- decline in stm
- difficulty completing - routine tasks
- impairment in thinking/problem solving

later stage;
- language impairment
- lack of judgement
- emotional outbursts
- changes in behaviour
agitation

final stage;
- unable to recognise family members
- unable to feed or care for self
- lack of control of bodily functions
- almost total loss of memory
- death

support needs for alzheimer’s disease’

early stage;
- informal help with everyday tasks
- medication
- counselling
- memory clinics

later stage;
- community/specialist nurse visits
- hospice care
- medication
- support in the home with personal care

final stage;
- residential/hospice care
- personal/continence care
- end of life care

123
Q

effects of illness common in ageing

A

physical effects;
- make the body less able to fight infection
- reduce stamina
- result in lost mobility
- cause pain and discomfort
- impact on the senses, making them less sharp
- affect vision and cause dizziness that could lead to falls

intellectual effects;
- cause short term memory loss
- affect decision making skills
- slow the ability to respond and react to information
- cause difficulty in verbal communication

social effects;
- reduce the opportunity and ability to socialise with friends
- impact on senses or neural capacity, making socialising difficult
- affect ability to communicate in groups

emotional effects;
- cause emotional distress, eg incontinence, communication difficulties
- result in dependence on others for personal care
- cause feelings of lack of control
- bring families closer together
- result in low self esteem

124
Q

lifestyle choices that may improve/exacerbate impact of ill health on elders

A

healthy diet;
- provides the additional nutrients needed to reduce a decline in health
- maintains a healthy weight to reduce stress on the heart and other organs

exercise;
- keeps the joints mobile
- maintains muscle and strength
- keeps the heart healthy

drugs;
- not smoking reduces the impact of age related disease
- taking recreational drugs can negatively affect the intellectual development and mood
- medication that is prescribed correctly should control illness and not make it worse

125
Q

social changes and tehri effects

A

social changes o older age can bring about a sense of loss, anxiety and reduced self concept

examples;

loss of job and status - retirement may reduce self esteem because of a feeling of lack of purpose, but increases leisure time and opportunities to try new things such as travel, enjoy grandchildren and hobbies

losing own home - affects contentment and security when forced to move, eg into smaller house, in with family or into residential care

death of partner/friends - grief can cause a loss of sense of safety and security, increased isolation and loss of intimacy

reduced access to social networks - difficulty in meeting and taking part in social activity cam prevent development of the brain, cause or worsen depression and other mental condition

loss of independence - reliance on others increases a feeling of helplessness

reduced mobility/illness - inability to move around and continue to carry out physical tasks can result in cognitive decline and reduce wellbeing

126
Q

psychological effects of ageing

A

financial concerns;
research has show that a lot of the older population do have financial concerns, resulting in poverty, this can lead to
; less opportunity to socialise
; less money to buy food
; less money to pay for adequate heating
; worry and stress

loneliness and dependence
; 36 percent of people over 65 live alone and by taking advantage of free bus travel and continuing to drive, it can help them to feel part of the community and reduces the feelings of isolation

self esteem;
health, employemnt and financial security are essentail for high self esteem, if these things are lost, an indidviaul can feel:
- that they are no longer useful’- that they are no longer indnepnendent, and cant do things for themselves
- financially insecure and anxious about how they will pay for things

all of these will reduce self esteem

effects of culture, religion and beliefs;
- individuals feel part of a group of community and this leads to them feeling less isolated
- beliefs help people to make sense of their ageing and come to terms with mortality
- some cultures ad religions place more value on older people

127
Q

theories of ageing

A

activity theory;
individual can achieve healthy ageing through continued social activity

based on a belief that:
- the social and psychological needs of individuals remain the same
- people need activity and social interactions
- individuals adjust to their declining health and mobility and / or strength
- people continue to involve themselves in the community

social disengagement theory;
reduction in social contact is natural in older age

based on a belief that:
- people naturally withdraw from social contact in older age
- society withdraws rom older people
- people focus on their previous life and activities
- family expects less from older people
- older people become more dependent
- ageing can result in tranquillity and be a positive development

getting the most out of later life;
- involvement in new activities, such as hobbies and volunteer
- the planning of new goals
- the development of new relationships
- decision making and choices about their own care

128
Q

provisions for older people

A

the number of older people has increased, they have specific health and social care needs and rely on a rage of different services to meet their needs and help them to remain independent

it is needed for:
- chronic conditions
- loss of mobility
- age related conditions
- loss of indepdnece
- increased risk of falls/injuries
- age related disease
- prevention slowing of age related diseases and illness

129
Q

what type of provision is available?

A

acute care - meeting immediate health needs, such as broken hips, heart attacks

healthcare - medication, support for long term conditions, palliative care, continence care, specialist nursing/units

social care - own home, day care or residential, assessing needs, supporting independence, personal care, day to day care, respite care

community equipment - keeping people mobile and independent in their own home, eg mobility aids, aids for daily living

psychological care - counsellors, mental health nursing

benefits and entitlements - adaptions to home, transport to and from appointments, financial support

end of life care - pain relief, psychological support

130
Q

provisions to help maintain health

A

how are healthy older people helped to stay healthy?;

  • health and monitoring and screening
  • influenzas immunisation
  • winter fuel and cold weather payments
  • rehabilitation after stay in hospital
  • occupational therapy
  • provision of social and leisure activities

integrated services;
older people may need different services to work together to assess and provide for their health and care needs:
formal and informal services are integrated to provide a holistic care packages;
- formal health care; statutory, private, voluntary
- informal health care; provided by family, community, or religious groups

131
Q

ageing and economic effects

A

impacts of the percentage rise in older people on the economy;

health and welfare; older people already use mor health and care services, a rise in numbers means a higher demand and increased costs

pension costs; more people receive a state pension, leaving less money for economic investment

employment; more retired people means a shortage of skilled workers, there are changes to working patterns as older people work part time

housing; more retirement homes and sheltered housing are required, people stay in their own home longer so fewer larger homes are available for families

government responses;
- raising the retirement age
- making it easier for older people to stay in work
- encouraging people in work to take out private pensions
- increasing taxes to pay for state pensions and welfare

pressures on services;
- advances in medicine that help people to live longer
- families being unable or less willing to care for older family members at home
- an increased in the numbers of older people with chronic conditions

unit 1 - h&s (3 decks)

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