lifespan development Flashcards
what is growth?
growth is an increase in measurable quantities e.g. height, weight
principles of growth
growth rates are not constant, different parts of the body grow at different rates, growth rates tend to vary between children and the growth rate of boys is usually faster on average than that of girls, as men tend to be taller than woman
measuring height
infants grown rapidly and will reach roughly half their adult height by the age of two, adolescents experience growth spurts during puberty and full height is reached by the start of early adulthood
head dimensions
head circumference is measured at birth and at 6-8 weeks to identify any abnormality in brain or skull growth, skull growth is faster in the 1st two years of life but continues into early adulthood. head circumferences is measured across the forehead, just above the ears and at the midpoint of the back and the head
recording growth
growth is an indicator of children’s health and wellbeing, measurements are plotted on a growth chart. centile lines represent the values of measurement from a a large number of children to show ‘norms’ of growth in each age group. growth charts give the length or height, weight and head dimensions expected at a particular age, comparing children’s growth against norms is important to identify signs of ill health and development problems, growth charts are different for both boys and girls as their expected rate of growth varies.
what is development?
acquiring skills and abilities in an orderly sequence, head to toe, inside and out
what are the 4 areas of development?
physical, intellectual, emotional and social
physical development
growth and other physical changes that happen to our body throughout life
intellectual/cognitive development
the development if language, memory and thinking skills
emotional development
the ability to cope with feelings about ourselves and towards others
social development
the ability to form friendships and relationships, and to learn to be independent
developmental milestones
the rate of development may vary between individuals but it follows the same sequence, with each stage called a milestone (developmental norm), development is observed and cannot be measured in the same way as growth
what are gross motor skills?
they allow children to control the large muscles in their torso, arms, legs, hands and feet.
gross motor skills in infancy
infancy develop their gross motor skills from the head down, around six months, infants gradually control muscles in their neck an back so they can roll, sit and crawl. at around 11-13 months, the muscles in their legs develop so that they can stand, cruise and walk. at around 2 years, infants can climb onto low furniture and propel a sit on toy, and at 2 and half yrs they can kick a ball.
gross motor activity
crawling, walking, running, balancing, coordinating, bending, climbing, pulling, pushing, kicking, scooting, jumping, skipping
3-4 ; gross motor skills
- they can pedal and control a bicycle
- they can hope on one foot
- they can throw a ball and they can aim it
- they can run forwards and backwards
- they can balance and walk along a line
5-8 ; gross motor skills
- they can ride a bicycle
- they can hop, skip and jump with confidence
- they can accurately throw and catch a ball
- they can skip with a rope
- they can balance on a low beam
what is fine motor skills?
they are important in controlling and coordinating movement of the small muscles in the fingers and hands
fine motor skills & development
- newborns - able to grasp an adult’s finger
- 3 months - hold a rattle for a short amount of time
- 6 months - grasp a toy and pass it to his other hand
- 12 months - l pick up small objects using a pincer grip
- 18 months - build blocks and use spoon and make marks with crayons using a palmar grasp
- 2 yrs - will be able to shoes on and control crayon to draw circles and dots
- 3 yrs - developing tripod grasp, can use fork and spoon, turn the pages of a book, button and unbutton clothing
- 4 yrs - will be able to thread small beads and color in pictures
- 5 yrs - control muscles in fingers to manipulate the block and use hand eye coordination to fit the piece into the correct place, can write own name forming letters correctly
- 8 yrs - can use joined up handwriting
activities that support fine motor skills
- gripping is where they have the strength in fingers and hands to hold an object firmly; activities: holding a rattle, tricycle handle or spoon
- manipulation is where they have the skillful movement of objects using fingers and hands, such as tuning, twisting and passing objects from one hand to another; activities: building with block, playing a musical instrument, playing with and placing farm animals or cars
- hand eye coordination is the control of eye movement at the same time as finger and hand movement; activities: writing, sewing or completing jigsaw puzzles
what are the stages of development?
infancy - 0-2
early childhood - 3-8
adolescence - 9-18
early adulthood - 19-45
middle adulthood - 46-65
later adulthood - 65+
puberty (adolescence)
during adolescence, young people experience a physical change during puberty, this takes place in girls around 11-years and in boys around 13-years. puberty starts when a hormone in the brain sends a signal to the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that stimulate the ovaries in girls and the testes in boys to produce sex hormones. during this stage, a young persons height can increase rapidly over a short time - this is known as a growth spurt.
the role of hormone in sexual development
boys - the hormone testosterone is produced by the testes. stimulates growth of the penis and testes, pubic hair growth, the development of muscle and lowering of the voice.
girls - the hormones estrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovaries. they stimulate the growth of breasts and reproductive system and help to regulate the menstrual cycle.
primary sexual characteristics
these are the processes that are related to the sex organs that are present at birth and mature when sex hormones are released.
girls:
- menstruation begins
- uterus and vagina grow
- ovulation occurs
boys:
- penis enlargens
- prostate gland produces secretions
- testes enlarge and produce sperm
secondary sexual characteristics
these are not necessary for reproduction. they develop when sex hormones are released.
girls:
- growth of armpit and pubic hair
- increased layers of fat under the skin
- breasts enlarge
- growth spurt
- hips widen
boys:
- growth of facial hair
- growth of armpit, chest and pubic hair
- increased muscle
- growth spurt
- larynx grows, causing voice to deepen
maturation (early adulthood)
- motor coordination is at its peak
- physical strength and stamina is at its peak
- full height is reached
- reaction time is quickest
- women are at their most fertile and can become pregnant and lactate
- hand eye coordination is at its peak
- sexual characteristics are fully developed
fertility and perimenopause (early adulthood)
at the beginning of this life stage, women are at their most fertile. around 40-45 years old, they reach the end of their reproductive years. this period is called the perimenopause.
- estrogen decreases
- menstruation becomes less frequent
- ovulation is regular
during menopause, the reduction in estrogen causes physical and emotional symptoms that include:
- hot flushes
- night sweats
- mood swings
- loss of libido
- vaginal dryness
ageing (middle adulthood)
signs:
- greying hair
- loss of muscle tone, strength and stamina
- body shape may change with an increase in or loss of weight
- men begin to lose hair
- women are no longer fertile as menstruation ends
- loss of height
the role of sex hormones in females
- estrogen plays the most important role in female sexuality and regulates ovulation
- progesterone is necessary for the implantation of fertilized eggs in the uterus, the maintenance of pregnancy and sexual health
symptoms of menopause = hormonal changes
reduction in estrogen causes:
- the ovaries to stop producing eggs
- thinning and shrinkage of the vagina
- affects the hypothalamus in the brain, which regulates temperature, causing hot flushes and night sweats
- affects the health of hair, skin and nails
- may cause mood swings, as estrogen regulates neurotransmitters that affect mood
reduction in estrogen and progesterone:
- gradually stops menstruation
- impacts libido
effects of ageing ; later adulthood
physical:
- less elasticity in the skin
- decline in strength
- loss of muscle
- loss of stamina
- less mobility in the large muscles in arms, legs and torso (gross motor skills)
- less mobility in the small muscles of the hands and fingers (fine motor skills)
- reduction in vision
- reduction in hearing
- thinning of hair on the head and pubic areas
- decline in the performance of organs
- higher susceptibility to disease and infection
- increased likelihood of injuries caused by falls
- height loss, it is caused by changes in posture and compression of the spinal discs and joints
intellectual:
ageing does not always impact on cognitive ability, but it can negatively affect how individuals process information, eg:
- memory
- recall
- speed of thinking
what is intellectual development?
intellectual development is about how individuals organise ideas and make sense of the world around them
types of intellectual development
problem solving - needed to work things out and make predictions about what might happen
language development - essential to organise and express thoughts
memory - essential for storing and recalling information
abstract thought and creative thinking - essential for thinking and discussing things that can’t be observed
moral development - needed for reasoning and making choices about how to act towards self and others
stages of life
intellectual development continues in early adulthood, by early adulthood individuals have gained knowledge, skills and experience. they use past experiences to make judgements. thinking is logical and realistic. individuals are able to think through problems and make decisions.
infancy and early childhood - this is a time of rapid intellectual development.. 90% of neuron connections are in place by the time children are 5 years old.
early/middle to later adulthood - individuals continue to learn new skills and knowledge into later adulthood, intelligence does not change but short term memory and thinking speed may decline.
intellectual milestones
- from birth; can use all their senses to help understand the world around them.
- at 3 years ; can ask questions, count, recognise colours and sort objects.
- at 5 years; starting to read and write and draw in detail, can talk about the past and the future
- at 8 years; can think more deeply, reason, talk about abstract ideas and plan
piaget - cognitive development
piaget believed that children pass through distinct developmental stages in sequence, he thought that children should be allowed to discover things for themselves through spontaneous play.
the four stages are:
sensorimotor (0-2)
pre operational (2-7)
concrete operational (7-11)
formal operational (11-18)
sensorimotor
- from birth to 2 years
infants learn about their environment and develop early schemas (concepts) by using all their senses to physically explore the world
pre operational
- from 2 to 7 years
children begin to control their environment by using symbolic behaviour, including representational words and drawings and pretend play, but are not yet able to think logically
concrete operational
- from 7 to 11 years
children use practical resources to help them understand the world, such as counters for mathematics. they classify, categorise and use logic to understand things they see
formal operational
- from 11 to 18 years
young people have the capacity for abstract thought, rational thought and problem solving
criticisms of his development theory
some critics believe that piaget underestimated children’s development and that with support they can move more quickly to the next stage of development
piaget’s schema theory
this theory explains how children use their experiences to construct their understanding of the world around them
the stages consist of :
- assimilation
- equilibrium
- disequilibrium
- accommodation
schema breakdown
assimilation - the child constructs an understanding or concept (schema) ; the child has developed a schema about sand
equilibrium - the child’s experience fits in with their schema ; the child’s experience in the nursery sandpit fits with their schema
disequilibrium - a new experience disturbs the child’s schema ; water is added to the sandpit, the sand behaves differently which upsets the child’s schema
accommodation - the child’s understanding changes to take account of the new experience; the child changes their schema to accommodate their new experience of sand. they develop a schema.
piaget - conservation
piaget carried out tests to show the stage hen children begin to reason and think logically
- the child is 4, he is shown two identical glasses with the sane amount of water in each
- the water from another glass is poured into a tall, narrow beaker
- the child believes that the tall, narrow beaker contains more water
conservation refers to children’s understanding that the amount remains the same even when the container’s shape has changed. piaget also used tests using solids, weight and number.
what does piaget’s test show?
- children under 7 years old cannot conserve because they cannot think about more than one aspect of a situation at one time
- by the operational stage, children can think logically so understand that the quantity of water stays the same when poured into a differently shaped container.
conservation & egocentrism
- conservation refers to the children’s understanding that the amount remains the same even when the container’s shape has changed. piaget also used tests using solids, weight and number.
- egocentrism is based on the fact that piaget believed that, until children are 7 years old, they only see things from their own perspective, he used his swiss mountain test to prove his theory of egocentrism
criticisms of piaget
- piaget sometimes underestimated children’s rate of development
- with support, children can develop more advanced concepts
- children can be given experiences that help them to move through the stages at a faster rate
- some children can see things from the perspective of others before the age 7
what is language development?
language development involves communication through articulation and receptive speech.
stages of language development
infancy :
0-3 months:
- make mouth movements in response to parent
- cries to ask for food or comfort
6-12 months:
- understands some words, such as ‘byebye’
- makes sounds such as ‘gaga’
18 months:
- can say between six and ten words
- can follow simple instructions
early childhood:
2-3 years:
- links words together, for example, ‘me car’
- vocabulary increasing to approximately 200 words at 2 and a half yrs
3-5 years:
- uses simple sentences
- asks questions
- may use incorrect forms of words, for example ‘i good’
8 years:
- speaks in complex sentences
- can reason and explain
adolescence:
9-19 years:
- developing vocabulary
- uses language to explore abstract ideas
chomsky
chomsky proposed the LAD (language acquisition device) as the hypothetical part of the human mind that allows infants to acquire and produce language.
he suggested that humans are:
- born with a structure in their brain that enables them to acquire language
- have a critical period for first language development in the first years of life
- all follow the same pattern of language development
- have an innate understanding of the structure of language (called universal grammar) that is the basis for all languages (subject, verb, object)
criticisms of chomsky
- lack of scientific evidence of innate understanding of structure of language
- the rate of language development is affected by the degree of interactions with others
- does not take into account that a language acquisition support system is required
- chomsky put emphasis on grammar in sentence development rather than meanings
theories of attachment
an attachment is an emotional bond that is formed between infants and young children and their main caregiver
bowlby’s theory of attachment
infants are biologically pre programmed to form attachments:
- attachment to the primary caregiver is essential
- a disruption to attachment has a negative impact on development
- attachment to the primary caregiver is a model for future attachments
- infancy is a critical period for developing attachments
- in their early months, infants form one primary attachment
schaffer & emerson
birth to 3 months - they respond to the caregiver
4-7 months - shows preference for primary caregiver but accepts care from others
7-9 months - prefers primary caregiver and seeks comfort from them, unhappy when seperated and shows fear of strangers
- 10 months+ - begins to develop attachments with others who respond to them, by 18 months most infants have formed multiple attachments
ainsworth’s strange situation
classified main three types into attachments, based on a study of children’s reactions when parted from a parent
secure
in tune with their child and their emotions; will show distress when primary caregiver leaves, and greets them when they return, seeks comfort from caregiver when upset, happy with strangers when caregiver is present
insecure avoidant
unavailable to child, rejects them; does not show distress when primary caregiver leaves, continues to explore the environment, may go to a stranger for comfort
insecure resistant
inconsistent in meeting the child’s needs, shows distress when primary caregiver leaves but resists contact on their return, shows anxiety and insecurity
disrupted attachment
may cause:
- anxiety
- difficulty in forming relationships
- depressive disorders
- delinquency
- learning disorders
self concept
self concept is an individual’s evaluation of their own self worth, consist of self esteem and self concept
self image
how individual’s view themselves, influenced by how they are perceived by others. for example, a slim person might perceive themselves as overweight.
self esteem
how individuals value and feel about the knowledge they have of themselves. one person might think, ‘i cant do it, i’m not good enough’, a person’s self esteem is not constant and may change from time to time depending on an individual’s circumstances
factors that may impact on self image and self esteem
- family and culture
- achievement, eg school or work
- life experiences
- life circumstances eg employment
- sexual orientation
- physical development/health
- the attitudes of others
- emotional development, including early attachment
self image ; + and -
+ feels happy about personal appearance and abilities
+ receives good feedback from others about appearance and abilities
+ compares self favourable with others
- feels unattractive or less intelligent than others
- receive negative comments from others about appearance or abilities
- compares self negatively against ‘perfect’ images in magazines/on tv
self image; + and -
+ feels confident
+ willing to try new things
+ copes well under pressure
- feels worthless
- less likely to try new things
- less likely to cope well in new or difficult situations
stages of play - basis
all children play, infants start to play when they are just a few months old, play promotes all areas of development
- the stages of play may vary between children. all children will pass through these stages. stages are influenced by children’s language and intellectual development. initially children play alone, then alongside other children, and eventually share and cooperate during play.
stages of play - ages
0-2 years, solo play.
children play alone with toys such as rattles, shakers and balls. they may be aware that other infants are present but do not attempt to play with them.
2-3 years, parallel play.
children are aware of other children. they may copy each other but they do not interact.
3 years and over, cooperative play. children share ideas and resources in the same activity, they interact and agree roles to develop their play towards a shared goal.
language and play
- play is important for children to develop their vocabulary
- children need language to be able to communicate and negotiate during cooperative play
symbols and play
- infants use all their senses to find out about the world around them
- children in the pre operational stage learn best through observational play, the provision of natural materials indoors and outdoors encourages curiosity and exploratory learning
friendships and relationships
they are essential for healthy human development
- building friendships involves learning to value others and developing skills to be able to interact with individuals and groups
- a breakdown in relationships can have a negative impact on social and emotional development and health
more on building friendships
close friendships - from around 3 years old, children start to develop special friendships
- these make individuals feel secure and confident
- they also promote independence and self esteem
friendships with a wider group of friends :
- as children widen their circle of friends, they become more confident and independent
- adolescents are greatly influenced by the views of their friends, which may affect their self image
- wider friendships continue to be important in adulthood for positive emotional and social development
developing relationships
relationships involve developing skills to interact with others in different situations
- formal relationships develop between individuals such as colleagues or teacher and pupil; positive formal relationships are important for good self esteem and self image
- intimate relationships may begin in adolescence and cognitive, and new ones form throughout life, close intimate relationships result in greater contentment, emotional security and positive self image
- informal relationships are built between individuals and family or significant people they start with attachments in infancy, strong informal relationships promote contentment and the confidence to deal with life events, they help to build other informal, formal and intimate relationships throughout life
healthy vs unhealthy relationships
healthy
- acceptance
- trust
- compromise
- respect
- responsibility
- honesty
unhealthy
- stress
- isolation
- distrust
- blame
- low self esteem
- insecurity
social development and independence
independence involves doing things for oneself and making decisions without relying on others, it is closely linked to social and emotional development
the development of independence through the life stages
infancy:
- depends on others for care
- will play alone but likes a familiar adult close by
early childhood:
- develops the necessary skills to become more independent in personal care
- develops likes and dislikes and can make limited decisions
adolescence:
- enjoys more freedom, more independent decisions can be made, e.g. about lifestyle and education but emotions make affect this ability
- takes responsibility for own actions but influenced by others
early adulthood:
- may live with parents but is independent
- makes own decisions about personal life and career
- often a time for relationships, marriage and starting a family
middle adulthood:
- becomes increasingly independent
- increased freedom with life changes e.g. dependent children leave home, retirement
later adulthood:
- continues to make own decisions
- may have financial constraints if relying on state pension
- changes in mental and physical capacity may gradually reduce ability to make own decisions and care for self
what is independence influenced by?
- stage of emotional development
- physical disability
- health
- culture
- stage on social development
negative and positive behaviours
peer pressure - describes a person or group influencing an individual to change their behaviour, values or beliefs so they conform to, and become socially accepted by, a peer group. adolescents may pressurise others to follow their lead on school rules, home rules and lifestyle
possible negative behaviours due to peer pressure:
- smoking, using alcohol and drugs
- truancy
- bullying
- vandalising
- stealing
- disrespect
possible positive behaviours due to peer pressure:
- taking part in sport
- studying
- befriending
- respecting others
- learning a new skill
- eating healthy foods
- keeping safe if taking part in sex
Gesell’s maturation theory
- helps how to explain the process of maturing and is related to overall development
Gesell based his theory on his belief that: - development is genetically determined from birth; a biological process children follow in the same orderly sequence in their development
- the pace of development may vary depending on their physical and intellectual development
Gesell observed the behaviours of many children, from which he determined averages or ‘norms’ which he called milestones of development, his milestones describe children’s physical, social and emotional development
positives and negatives of Gesell
positives:
- he determined typical norms of development hat are still used today
- he used advanced methodology in observations of behaviour of large numbers of children
negatives:
- he did not consider the influence of individual or cultural differences in children
- he believed that the norms of development he described were desirable
social learning theory - bandura
- slt suggests that the way children behave is an interaction between personal and environmental factors
- based on the belief that learning happens through observing, imitating and modelling the behaviours of others
1. attention - learning takes place when a child focuses their attention on a person who ‘models’ the behaviour, children are more likely to imitate the behaviour o someone they identify with or admire
2. retention - what the child has observed is retained in their memory to be used when an opportunity occurs
3. reproduction - what has been learned is reproduced or imitated; it may be rehearsed in the child’s mind first and then imitated when there is an opportunity
4. reinforce - children feel motivated because they anticipate intrinsic or extrinsic rewards, children will be motivated to repeat or stop the behaviour, depending on the reinforcement
reinforcement
behaviour may be repeated or resisted - this is reinforcement and may be positive or negative
positive reinforcement - the behaviour is repeated because of personal satisfaction or rewards
negative reinforcement - the behaviour is no repeated to avoid an adverse experience such as lack of satisfaction or being told off
vicarious reinforcement - children may be motivated because they see that the person or ‘model’ they observe is getting satisfaction or positive feedback
- children may also resist imitating the action because the model receives negative feedback from their action
bobo doll experiment
children were shown adults being aggressive or non aggressive towards the bobo doll, the aggressive adults were either rewarded, reprimanded or had no consequence for their behaviour. the experiment was designed by bandura to show that:
- children would copy the aggressive behaviour of another person
- the outcome for the adult impacted on the likelihood of children copying the behaviour
the result:
- children learned aggressive behaviour through observation
- children were more likely to imitate an adult who was rewarded for aggressive behaviour than one who was reprimanded
nature vs nurture
nature - the influence of innate/inherited features on development, based on the assumption that children are genetically pre programmed, they have inherited skills, abilities and behaviours from their parents
nature and nurture - Piaget accepted that children develop in a predestined way but believed experiences help them to develop new concepts
nurture - the influence of environment and nurturing, based on the assumption that characteristics are acquired and can be shaped through observation
genetic predispositions & stress diathesis model
an individuals genetic predispositions (nature) can be triggered by their environment and life experiences (nurture)
stress diathesis:
nature - diathesis:
a predisposition of vulnerability to mental disorders due to an abnormality of the brain or neurotransmitters (genetic/biological factors)
nurture - stresses: traumatic events in a person’s life e.g. relationships, abuse, culture (environmental factors)
genetic factors
- can affect physical growth , development, health and appearance
genetic predisposition to conditions:
genes are sets of instructions to the cells that determine growth and development, individuals inherit 23 pairs of chromosomes, which contain genes. health conditions can arise from defective inherited genes.
dominant genes;
- can be passed on from one parent or both. the likelihood of developing a condition depends upon whether the defective gene is recessive or dominant.
a dominant gene needs only to be passed on by one parent for the child to develop a condition for example:
- brittle bone disease; causes bones to break easily
- huntington’s disease; causes involuntary movement, cognitive and psychiatric disorders
recessive genes:
must be passed on form both parents for the child to develop the condition, for example:
- cystic fibrosis; causes a build up of thick, sticky mucus that can damage the lungs
- phenylketonuria (PKU); causes intellectual disability and developmental delay due to build of amino acids
- duchenne muscular dystrophy; causes muscle weakness and wasting resulting in difficulty with motor skills and walking
if the defective gene is passed form one parent only, the child becomes a carrier
conditions caused by an abnormality in an individual’s chromosomes
- down’s syndrome - individuals have an extra copy of chromosome 21, this causes characteristic facial features, growth delay and intellectual disability
klinefelter syndrome - boys have an extra x chromosome, causing problems during,, or a delay in puberty
colour blindness - caused by mutations in the x chromosome, s is more common in males, it makes it difficult to distinguish colours
genetic susceptibility to disease
this means an increased likelihood of developing a disease because of an individual’s genetic makeup, it can lead to diseases such as:
- cancer
- high blood cholesterol
- diabetes
other factors affecting disease:
- the likelihood of developing diseases can be increased or reduced by:
- environmental factors
- lifestyle
- life events
- availability of preventative treatment
biological factors
- affects living organisms
biological factors:
the mothers lifestyle during pregnancy can affect the health and development of the unborn child, for example, lifestyle factors that may affect the unborn child include: - poor diet
- drug use
- alcohol use
- smoking
effects on developing child:
the effects of poor lifestyle choices in pregnancy include :
- low birth weight
- premature birth
- long term health problems
- learning disabilities
- developmental delay
- congenital effects (defects in the developing foetus)
maternal infections & foetal alcohol syndrome
infections such as rubella or cytomegalovirus can be passed to the baby in the womb and may cause:
- health problems
- congenital defects
- still birth
- miscarriage
foetal alcohol syndrome is caused by exposure to alcohol in the womb, symptoms can include:
- small head circumference
- neurological problems
- abnormal growth
- developmental delay
- facial abnormalities
congenital anomalies
these are defects in the developing foetus, such as congenital heart disease or club foot, anomalies may be detected before birth, during birth or later in life
factors contributing to congenital anomalies:
- genetic, such as down syndrome
- nutritional, such as deficiency in foetus, which increases the risk of neural tube defect (spina bifida)
- environmental, such as maternal exposure to pesticides, chemicals, radiation or alcohol or tobacco, causing abnormal growth
- infections, such as rubella, resulting in deafness and health problems
environmental factors
pollution happens when harmful substances contains the atmosphere, pollutants are taken into the body via the nose and mouth or through the skin.
outdoor pollutants:
- traffic fumes, domestic fumes, industry, pesticides
indoor pollutants;
- cleaning chemicals, aerosols, cigarette smoke, mould/bacteria
conditions caused by pollutants:
- respiratory disorders:
bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer
- cardiovascular problems:
artery blockage, heart attack
- allergies: wheezing, allergic rhinitis, anaphylactic shock
poor housing condiitons:
these an lead to short term or longer term health conditions
possible effects of housing conditions:
- poor ventilation/damp and mould would lead to respiratory disorders
- overcrowding can lead to anxiety and depression
- inadequate heating could lead to hypothermia
- lack of outdoor space can lead to cardiovascular problems
- poor sanitation and vermin can lead to risk of infection
health and social services
- are available to support individuals with their health and social care needs, access to services can be difficult as availability can vary between different geographical areas
health services:
urgent/emergency care, sexual health, mental health, pharmacy, dental eye care, walk in centres, home nursing, chronic health care, community health, maternity services, paediatric care
both:
advisory services, advocacy, discharge planning, transport, nursing home, end of life care, safeguarding
adult and children’s social care:
day care centres and luncheon clubs, supported living, residential care, benefits; financial support, home care, housing, children’s services
access to services can prove difficult for some people
service availability;
- specialist services or drugs are not available in some geographical areas
- there may be restrictions on delivery or service opening times
- pressures on services because of increased demand e.g. winter flu, may limit availability
- waiting times are affected by lack of availability of specialists and hospital beds
- lack of public transport to take individuals to and from services
individual circumstances;
- mobility difficulties restrict physical access
- learning and/or communication difficulties can impact on a person’s understanding of and contact with available services
- personal circumstances such as caring for others or working long hours, can make attending services difficult
social factors - family dysfunction
dysfunctional families;
- members of the family do not carry out their responsibilities
- needs of family members are not met
- family members display negativity towards each other
- sibling rivalry and conflict
- abuse may happen
- use of coercion and blame
reasons for dysfunction;
- parents perpetuate their own dysfunctional upbringing
- untreated medical illness in one or more family members
- alcohol or drug abuse by one or more members in the family
impact of dysfunction
members of dysfunctional families have negative self concept and this can lead to difficulty building friendships and relationships
possible effects of parental divorce or separation:
- psychological problems
- guilt
- health problems
- increased likelihood of drug or alcohol use
- isolation
- stress
parenting styles
demanding but supportive - authoritative; children are accepted for who they are, there is mutual love and respect
- children often have self control, confidence and have high self esteem
demanding but unsupportive - authoritarian; parents assert their authority, children are controlled
- children may have poor social skills and low self esteem
undemanding but supportive - permissive; parents are indulgent; they do not attempt to control behaviour
- children may be self confident, impulsive and have difficulty building friendships
undemanding and unsupportive - disengaged/uninvolved; parents are neglectful and show lack of interest, there is poor attachment
- children may have low confidence and self esteem and hide their emotions
social factors - bullying
bullying can happen at any life stage and it has a negative effect on everyone involved - the victim, the bully and any onlookers
bullying can take different forms:
1. verbal, using words to hurt and this includes:
- name calling
- making racist, sexist, or disablist comments/slurs
- making hurtful comments
- making threats
- ridiculing
- emotional, causing psychological hurt and this includes:
- spreading rumours
- excluding
- ignoring
- stalking - physical, using force and this includes:
hitting, punching, pushing, sapping, kicking, taking/hiding/damaging someone else’s property - cyber bullying, using tech to hurt someone and this can include;
- sending hurtful messages via online
- sharing personal info without permission
- posting inappropriate posts
- hurtful/anonymous text messaging
short term & long term effects
short term:
- stress/anxiety
- inability to cope with life events
- poor self image
- low self esteem
- eating disorders
- withdrawal from school, work and activities
long term:
bullying can have a significant psychological effect on development and wellbeing, including:
- difficulties in forming relationships
- poor academic achievement
- substance abuse
- self harm
- increased risk of suicide
influence of culture and religion
development is influenced by an individual culture, the community in which they live and their beliefs culture community and beliefs influence;
- dress
- diet
- personal values
- relationships
- lifestyle
- morality
lifestyle rules - diet
dietary restrictions
eg some religions forbid the consumption of certain foods, such as shellfish for jews and pork for muslims. buddhists and many hindus are vegetarian.
possible health benefits;
- high fibre and or low fat diets lower risk of high cholesterol, heart disease and high blood pressure
- reduced risk of cancers and heart disease if alcohol or stimulants are restricted
possible health risks;
- nutritional deficiencies such as ack of calcium, iron and vitamin b12, vitamin d and protein
fasting;
eg several religions have periods of fasting, such as muslims during Ramadan, jews for several days in the year and mormons on the first sunday of each month
possible health benefits;
- loss of weight, reduced cholestral levels, detoxification
possible health risks;
- heartburn, constipation, malnourishment, dehydration, exacerbation of existing conditions such as diabetes and stress
lifestyle rules - medical
medival interventions eg christian scientists believe in healing through prayer and jehovah’s witnesses do not receive blood transfusions
possible health risks;
deterioration and risk of possible death
possible social and emotional effects of culture and beliefs
positive:
- people share the same values, beliefs and religion
- people feel accepted and are supported by others
- people feel valued by others because of their values, beliefs and religion
negative:
- people are discriminated against because of their values, beliefs or religion
- people feel excluded because of their values, beliefs or religion
- a person’s culture is ignored or not understood
economic factors
- income and expenditure; a person’s level of income and personal wealth
- education; the stage of education reached, educational opportunities and achievements
- employment status; whether a person is in work or not, the type of work, whether it is a full or part time, job security and future prospects
- lifestyle and health; being able to afford a healthy diet or access to exercise, making choices about sexual practices, alcohol, smoking and drug use that affect personal finance and the ability to keep and sustain employment
effects of economic factors; positives
positives:
physical;
- manual/active jobs improve muscle tone and stamina
- lifestyle; being able to afford a healthy diet and regular exercise to keep digestive systems, circulatory systems and joints healthy
intellectual;
- being in work education or training promotes creative thinking and problem solving skills
- being able to afford a good diet and exercise can promote cognitive development
emotional;
- being in a high status job and having a good income and education may e=lead to high self image and positive self esteem
- having an adequate income and job provides opportunities and independence
social;
- being at school, college, or in training or work provides opportunities to develop friendships
- being able to afford a healthy lifestyle can lead to friendships
effects of economic factors; negatives
physical;
- manual jobs may cause muscular and skeletal problems
- sedentary/desk based jobs can cause back problems, repetitive strain injury, lack of fitness and increased risk of joint problems and heart disease
intellectual development;
- being out of work, retired or in a non demanding job may cause deterioration of memory and problem solving skills
- low income and low quality lifestyle can lead to stress and loss of concentration
emotional development;
- being unemployed, having a low status job and poor academic achievement can lead to poor lifestyle choices eg drug use, unhealthy diet, negative self image and low self esteem,
- low income and poor health due to lifestyle can lead to lack of choice and independence
- concerns about lack of work or finances can lead to stress
social development;
- low income or unemployment offers fewer opportunities for building relationships
- poor lifestyle may lead to breakdown in relationships
what are predictable life events?
these are life events that;
- are likely to happen to most people, such as starting school or work
- can be anticipated and prepared for
predictable events often have positive effects such as building self esteem, developing confidence, providing security or furthering learning, however changes can still cause anxiety, which may affect health and wellbeing
what are unpredictable life events?
these are life events that:
- are not expected, such as an accident or serious illness
- happen with little or no warning so cannot be prepared for
some life events will happen to many people but not everyone, for example, marriage, having children, getting a promotion or serious illness
examples of life events
- moving house
- starting school
- marriage/partnership
- starting a family
- divorce
- leaving home
- promotion
- redundancy
- injury/illness
- death of someone else
- beginning/changing employment
- retirement
types of transitions
physical - change of environment
eg workplace, school, home
emotional - personal experiences
eg bereavement, marriage, divorce
intellectual eg university, college, job promotion
physiological eg puberty, health conditions, injury
the effects of life events
- headaches/migraines
- mental health problems
- anxiety
- heart conditions
- digestive problems
- high blood pressure
- stress/sleeping difficulties
holmes-rahe social adjustment rating scale
believed there was a correlation between psychological illness and stressful events
the study:
1 - holmes and rahe listed 43 life events that individual may experience
2 - they applied a score to each life event, depending on the level of stress it was likely to cause
3 - patients were asked to indicate the life events they had experienced from the list
4 - patients added up the scores from their life events
the results;
holmes and rahe found there was a number of a correlation because of the units (the level and number or stressful events the individuals experienced) and their illness
predictability & events listed
predictable and unpredictable life events can cause stress at any life stage, extreme stress from unpredictable life events can cause serious mental and physical problems
events listed;
holmes and rahe both listed predictable and unpredictable vents, their units allocated to each event varied depending on the event, here are some examples:
- death of a partner - 100 units
- marriage - 50 units
- retirements - 45 units
- change of school - 20 units
cardiovascular disease and ageing
health factors that can exacerbate heart disease:
- genetic inheritance
- obesity
- high blood pressure
- high blood cholesterol
- diabetes
lifestyle factors that can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease:
- diet high in salt, saturated fats etc
- lack of exercise
- alcohol & smoking
- the heart may increase in size, causing the heart wall to thicken, making it more difficult for the heart muscles to relax and fill with blood between beats
- artery walls narrow due to clogging by fats called cholesterol, preventing blood from passing easily
- pacemaker cells decrease, causing problems in the rhythm of the heart
- the valves inside the heart the control the flow of the blood thicken and become stiffer
the effects of cardiovascular disease in later life
negative;
loss of independence
anxiety about health
depression
anger
frustration
reduced mobility
loss of opportunity to develop new friendships
positive;
closer relationships with family members and friends
choosing to improve lifestyle
degeneration of the nervous tissue
nerves are pathways that carry messages along the spinal cord between the brain and the different parts of the body, the loss of neurons in the brain leads to a decrease in the capacity of the brain to send and receive nerve impulses
degeneration of tissue can cause:
- reduction in reflexes and movement
- effects on senses
- decline in verbal capacity
- decline in short term memory
- difficulty in receiving and processing information
- increase in time takes to to react
facts about nervous tissue;
- the pace of degeneration varies between older people
- the same symptoms may be caused by illness such Alzheimer’s disease
- the brain can produce new brain cells into older age, eg stroke patients learn to speak again
- new connections between nerve cells can develop
- exercising, not smoking and cognitive activity can slow the degeneration of the nervous tissue in older people
degeneration of sense organs can cause:
- depression
- anxiety
- isolation
- loss of independence
- low self image
- reduced opportunities for socialising because of difficulty in travelling/driving
- difficulty in joining in conversations
- difficulty in taking part in leisure activities eg listening to music, reading
senses
taste/smell:
- the number of taste buds decrease, reducing the enjoyment of food and perhaps resulting in poor diet
- production of saliva decreases, affecting the taste and enjoyment of food
- the ability to sell decreases, reducing the ability to detect dangerous odours such as fumes or foods that have gone off
touch:
a decreased in the number of receptor cells in older age leads to:
- reduced sensitivity to temperature, which can lead to burns, frostbite or hypothermia
- reduced sensitivity to injury, which can lead to untreated pressure sores or ulcers
- increased sensitivity to touch, which can cause bruising
- skin becoming more sensitive to the sun, which can lead to sunburn or skin cancer
sight:
- visibility becomes less sharp
- cataracts may develop, causing cloudiness in vision
- the vitreous (gel) in the eye starts to shrink, causing floaters
- peripheral vision deteriorates
- eye muscles become weaker, reducing the field of vision
- there is an increased risk of age related macular degeneration which causes a gradual loss of sight
hearing:
- fluid like tubes in the inner ear, which help to maintain balance become affected, which may cause dizziness and cause falls
- the ability to hear high frequency sounds deteriorate
- distinguishing between sounds is more difficult
- tinnitus is experienced because of a build of wax or damage to the ear
osteoarthritis
the physical effects of this are:
- swelling and pain in joints
- damage to the soft tissue around joints
- difficulty in walking
- difficulty in climbing stairs
the risk of osteoarthritis is increased by:
- being over 40 years of age
- obesity
- injury to joints
- genetic inheritance
- being female
- joint abnormality
absorption of nutrients
with age, the body is less efficient at absorbing the nutrients it requires, this can result in malnutrition even if the person’s diet remains the same as when they were younger, the reduction of the absorption of nutrients is caused by:
- reduced production of gastric hydrochloric acid, which prevents the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates
- the deterioration of the function of the digestive organs and digestive lining
the effects of deficiencies in essential nutrients
vitamin d - increases risk of osteoporosis, cancer and diabetes, and reduces the body’s ability to absorb calcium
calcium - causes bone loss and increases the risk of osteoporosis and fractures
vitamin b12 - slows the creation of red blood cells and reduces nerve function
magnesium - impacts on the immune system and function of the heart
omega 3 - increases the risk of rheumatoid arthritis and macular degeneration
potassium & weakens bones and reduces cell function and kidney function
vitamin c - slows healing and the development of healthy tissue
iron & increases the risk of anaemia
dementia
facts about dementia:
- a stroke may cause dementia because when the brain’s blood supply is restricted, brain cells begin to die
- lifestyle factors such as smoking, an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise can increase the risk of dementia
- the risk of dementia increases with age
- dementia is a progressive disease - more parts of the brain ae damaged over time
- Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. it mainly affects people e over the age of 65. proteins called plaques and tangles build up in the brain, this leads to a shortage of chemicals in the brain, which affects the transmission of signals
effects & support needs for alzheimers
effects of alzehimer’s disease:
- early stage;
- decline in stm
- difficulty completing - routine tasks
- impairment in thinking/problem solving
later stage;
- language impairment
- lack of judgement
- emotional outbursts
- changes in behaviour
agitation
final stage;
- unable to recognise family members
- unable to feed or care for self
- lack of control of bodily functions
- almost total loss of memory
- death
support needs for alzheimer’s disease’
early stage;
- informal help with everyday tasks
- medication
- counselling
- memory clinics
later stage;
- community/specialist nurse visits
- hospice care
- medication
- support in the home with personal care
final stage;
- residential/hospice care
- personal/continence care
- end of life care
effects of illness common in ageing
physical effects;
- make the body less able to fight infection
- reduce stamina
- result in lost mobility
- cause pain and discomfort
- impact on the senses, making them less sharp
- affect vision and cause dizziness that could lead to falls
intellectual effects;
- cause short term memory loss
- affect decision making skills
- slow the ability to respond and react to information
- cause difficulty in verbal communication
social effects;
- reduce the opportunity and ability to socialise with friends
- impact on senses or neural capacity, making socialising difficult
- affect ability to communicate in groups
emotional effects;
- cause emotional distress, eg incontinence, communication difficulties
- result in dependence on others for personal care
- cause feelings of lack of control
- bring families closer together
- result in low self esteem
lifestyle choices that may improve/exacerbate impact of ill health on elders
healthy diet;
- provides the additional nutrients needed to reduce a decline in health
- maintains a healthy weight to reduce stress on the heart and other organs
exercise;
- keeps the joints mobile
- maintains muscle and strength
- keeps the heart healthy
drugs;
- not smoking reduces the impact of age related disease
- taking recreational drugs can negatively affect the intellectual development and mood
- medication that is prescribed correctly should control illness and not make it worse
social changes and tehri effects
social changes o older age can bring about a sense of loss, anxiety and reduced self concept
examples;
loss of job and status - retirement may reduce self esteem because of a feeling of lack of purpose, but increases leisure time and opportunities to try new things such as travel, enjoy grandchildren and hobbies
losing own home - affects contentment and security when forced to move, eg into smaller house, in with family or into residential care
death of partner/friends - grief can cause a loss of sense of safety and security, increased isolation and loss of intimacy
reduced access to social networks - difficulty in meeting and taking part in social activity cam prevent development of the brain, cause or worsen depression and other mental condition
loss of independence - reliance on others increases a feeling of helplessness
reduced mobility/illness - inability to move around and continue to carry out physical tasks can result in cognitive decline and reduce wellbeing
psychological effects of ageing
financial concerns;
research has show that a lot of the older population do have financial concerns, resulting in poverty, this can lead to
; less opportunity to socialise
; less money to buy food
; less money to pay for adequate heating
; worry and stress
loneliness and dependence
; 36 percent of people over 65 live alone and by taking advantage of free bus travel and continuing to drive, it can help them to feel part of the community and reduces the feelings of isolation
self esteem;
health, employemnt and financial security are essentail for high self esteem, if these things are lost, an indidviaul can feel:
- that they are no longer useful’- that they are no longer indnepnendent, and cant do things for themselves
- financially insecure and anxious about how they will pay for things
all of these will reduce self esteem
effects of culture, religion and beliefs;
- individuals feel part of a group of community and this leads to them feeling less isolated
- beliefs help people to make sense of their ageing and come to terms with mortality
- some cultures ad religions place more value on older people
theories of ageing
activity theory;
individual can achieve healthy ageing through continued social activity
based on a belief that:
- the social and psychological needs of individuals remain the same
- people need activity and social interactions
- individuals adjust to their declining health and mobility and / or strength
- people continue to involve themselves in the community
social disengagement theory;
reduction in social contact is natural in older age
based on a belief that:
- people naturally withdraw from social contact in older age
- society withdraws rom older people
- people focus on their previous life and activities
- family expects less from older people
- older people become more dependent
- ageing can result in tranquillity and be a positive development
getting the most out of later life;
- involvement in new activities, such as hobbies and volunteer
- the planning of new goals
- the development of new relationships
- decision making and choices about their own care
provisions for older people
the number of older people has increased, they have specific health and social care needs and rely on a rage of different services to meet their needs and help them to remain independent
it is needed for:
- chronic conditions
- loss of mobility
- age related conditions
- loss of indepdnece
- increased risk of falls/injuries
- age related disease
- prevention slowing of age related diseases and illness
what type of provision is available?
acute care - meeting immediate health needs, such as broken hips, heart attacks
healthcare - medication, support for long term conditions, palliative care, continence care, specialist nursing/units
social care - own home, day care or residential, assessing needs, supporting independence, personal care, day to day care, respite care
community equipment - keeping people mobile and independent in their own home, eg mobility aids, aids for daily living
psychological care - counsellors, mental health nursing
benefits and entitlements - adaptions to home, transport to and from appointments, financial support
end of life care - pain relief, psychological support
provisions to help maintain health
how are healthy older people helped to stay healthy?;
- health and monitoring and screening
- influenzas immunisation
- winter fuel and cold weather payments
- rehabilitation after stay in hospital
- occupational therapy
- provision of social and leisure activities
integrated services;
older people may need different services to work together to assess and provide for their health and care needs:
formal and informal services are integrated to provide a holistic care packages;
- formal health care; statutory, private, voluntary
- informal health care; provided by family, community, or religious groups
ageing and economic effects
impacts of the percentage rise in older people on the economy;
health and welfare; older people already use mor health and care services, a rise in numbers means a higher demand and increased costs
pension costs; more people receive a state pension, leaving less money for economic investment
employment; more retired people means a shortage of skilled workers, there are changes to working patterns as older people work part time
housing; more retirement homes and sheltered housing are required, people stay in their own home longer so fewer larger homes are available for families
government responses;
- raising the retirement age
- making it easier for older people to stay in work
- encouraging people in work to take out private pensions
- increasing taxes to pay for state pensions and welfare
pressures on services;
- advances in medicine that help people to live longer
- families being unable or less willing to care for older family members at home
- an increased in the numbers of older people with chronic conditions
