Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

EPPP > Lifespan Development > Flashcards

Lifespan Development Flashcards

1
Q

Piaget’s Constructivist Theory

A

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT relies on bio maturation and experience combo. Active process.

Learn through MOTIVATION FOR EQUILIBRIUM (between current thinking and environment). Resolve disequilibrium through ASSIMILATION (use existing cog schema) or ACCOMMODATION (create NEW schema).

  • dog/cow example
  • 4 universal stages in order; age for each stage affected by child’s culture/other environmental factors.
  • underestimates infants/children abilities (e.g., deferred imitation occurs earlier, children as young as 4 can conserve) and lacks consideration of the impact of SOCIAL INTERACTION w/peers for COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage

A

BIRTH TO TWO
6 substages:
(1) reflexive reactions (0-1mo),
(2) primary circular reactions (1-4mo; repeats actions involving own body),
(3) secondary circular reactions (4-8mo; repeats actions w/objects and mimics),
(4) coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12mo; links reactions w/purpose, object permanence),
(5) tertiary circular reactions (12-18mo; experiments),
(6) internalization of schemas (18-24mo, representational thought).

  • Development of OBJECT PERMANENCE and REPRESENTATIONAL/SYMBOLIC THOUGHT
  • New research says deferred imitation of facial expressions in sub stage 2…deferred imitation of simple bx in sub stage 4…deferred imitation of complex sequences in sub stage 6.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Piaget: Preoperational Stage

A

TWO TO SEVEN YEARS:

  • Representational thought increases; think about past/future
  • Engage in creative play (use of object as something else)

Limited by…

  • TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING (unrelated events occurring at same time are casually related) and
  • EGOCENTRISM (other people experience world the same)….which leads to
  • MAGICAL THINKING (thinking can make something happen) and
  • ANIMISM (inanimate objects have lifelike qualities).

-Also, inability to conserve (water in diff glasses example) due to (1) CENTRATION (focus on one aspect to exclusion of others) and (2) IRREVERSIBILITY (inability to understand action/process is reversible)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage

A

SEVEN YEARS TO TWELVE YEARS:

  • Use of LOGICAL OPERATIONS to classify objects, order items, calculation, and conservation
  • CONSERVATION depends on dev of DE-CENTRATION and REVERSIBILITY
  • Conversation develops in order: numbers, length liquid quantity, mass, weight, and volume.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Horizontal Decalage

A

Gradual development of skill within single stage of development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Piaget: Formal Operational Stage

A

TWELVE YEARS TO ADULTHOOD:
-abstract thinking and engage in HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE REASONING (derive and test alternative hypotheses) and PROPOSITIONAL THOUGHT (evaluate logic of statements w/o concrete examples)

-Stage beginning includes renewed EGOCENTRISM (imaginary audience - think others attn on you), PERSONAL FABLE (belief one is special/unique/cant be understood/omnipotent/invulnerable)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Vgotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

A

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT occurs first on

(1) INTERpersonal level (e.g., teacher models something) and then on
(2) INTRApersonal level (e.g., student repeats directions to self)

-Use of PRIVATE SPEECH —> for more effective problem solving.
Replaced by INNER (silent) SPEECH by 7.
-Older ppl might revert for difficult tasks.

LEARNING PRECEDES cog development and most rapid in ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (gap between what one wants to do and can do).

Assistance from adults = SCAFFOLDING

-Make believe/symbolic play creates zone of proximal dev

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Childhood Amnesia

A

Infants have SOME long-term memory

Length of time events remembered increases substantially during infancy/toddlerhood

  • 6mo = 24hours,
  • 20mo = 12months

Most adults cant remember before 3-4 years of age…Why? No consensus. Theories: (1) Language allows memories to be encoded. (2) Sense of self might be necessary for personal memories.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Reminiscence Bump

A
  • Adults remember most within 10 year period BUT ALSO remember most between 15-25.
  • Why? Many memories for identity formation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Effects of Increasing Age (on Cog Development)

A
  • Adults: greatest age-related decline in recent long-term memory, followed by working memory aspect of short-term memory.
  • Not affected are storage of short-term/primary memory and remote long-term/tertiary memory.
  • Why? If older, less likely to use effective encoding. Older benefit from training/using memory strategies
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Declarative Memory

A

AKA explicit memory. Consists of memories that are retrieved consciously and intentionally such as episodic (autobio) and semantics (facts, concepts)

Episodic memory - DECLINES WITH AGE Semantic memory = little to no age-related decline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Non-declarative Memory

A
  • AKA implicit memory. Auto retrieved or w/little effort. Includes Procedural memories, memories from classical conditioning, and priming memories
  • Inconsistent research on decline w/age. Some suggest some decline (but less than episodic)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Synchrony Effect (Cog Dev)

A
  • age related differences for optimal time for successful performance (especially those requiring inhibition)
  • optimal time related to circadian rhythms/peak circadian arousal
  • Morning for older adults and late afternoon/evening for younger adults
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Sex differences in Cog Dev

A
  • Reliable differences are rare and relatively small..ALSO huge impact of stereotypes & gendered roles
  • math (girls better w/computational skills, boys better w/math reasoning &have more solution strategies),
  • verbal ( girls better w/verbal ability including speech fluency, reading and writing; boys better w/verbal analogies),
  • Visual/Spatial (boys better especially with mental rotation),
  • Aggression (boys more physically aggressive as early as 2 years, girls MAY do more relational aggression)
  • Self esteem (boys higher and persists through adult)
  • Developmental Vulnerability (boys more likely to have developmental probs, and b affected by pre/perinatal hazards)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Impact of Heredity

A
  • 3 main mechanisms of inheritance*
  • single gene-pair: two recessive genes i.e., punnett square
  • sex-linked: gene on sex chromosome (usually X)
  • polygenic: multiple genes (e.g., hair color, height, weight)

Heritability = extent phenotype (combo of genes/environment) due to genotype.
-estimates vary by characteristic as well as same characteristics in different contexts (e.g., IQ…=.80 in adults, .50 in children BUT..in children…low-SES=.10 and .70 in high SES).

(Berk, 2010; Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D’Onofrio, and Gottesman, 2003).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Role of Environment

A
  • critical v. sensitive periods (longer)
  • For humans, more sensitive periods
  • Bronfenbrenner ecological theory (2004): microsystem (individual relationships w/others, home and school), mesosystem (interactions between elements e.g., family relationships and school relationships), exosystem (parent’s work, community), macrosystem (social/cultural context), chronosystem (lifespan events…job loss, sibling birth)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Hereditary and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

A
  • IQ impacted by heredity and environment
  • Median correlations: ID twins together=.85; ID twins apart=.67; Frat twins together=.58; bio sibs together=.45; bio sibs apart=.24; half-sibs together=.35; adopted sibs together=.31; bio parent/child together=.39; bio parent/child apart=.22; adoptive parent and child=.18.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Heredity-Environment Interactions

A
  • Genotype-environment correlation can be:
    (1) PASSIVE..both genotype and nurture predisposition,
    (2) EVOCATIVE…genotype evokes reinforcement from environment, and
    (3) ACTIVE…NICHE PICKING/seeking environment that “fits” genotype. (most important over time/later bc gain autonomy).
  • REACTION RANGE: extent to environmental response/influence. E.g., Canalization/severity of genotype restricts nature benefits
  • DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY (DST): Says both nature & nurture essential. E.g., motor milestones don’t suddenly emerge but due to biology and environmental support, which explain variation.
  • Epigenetics: Modification of gene expression to change phenotype as opposed to genetic code. methylation aka chemical cap to DNA prevents expression. Environmental/psychosocial factors for epigenetic changes include –> diet, pollutants, abuse. Evidence can be passed down.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Prader-Willi syndrome,
Angelman Syndrome,
Cri-Du-Chat Syndrome

A

*all due to chromosomal deletions
-Prader-Willi –> deletion on PATERNAL chromosome 15. DD, ID, PHYSICAL FEATURES (narrow forehead, almond-shaped eyes, short stature, small hands/feet), hypotonia, hyperphagia (overeating)/OBESITY, HYPOGONADISM, SIB’s
- Angelman –> MATERNAL chromosome 15 deletion. DD/ID, MICROCEPHALY, WIDE JAW, pointed chin, hand flap, SEIZURES, ataxia, hyperactive, UNNATURALLY HAPPY
Cri-Du-Chat –> Chromosome 5 deletion. Severity varies with severity of deletion. cat-like cry, ID/DD, MICROCEPHALY, LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, low muscle tone, facial features (wide set eyes, low set ears, round face)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Klinefelter syndrome
Turner syndrome
Rett Syndrome

A

*all due to sex chromosome abnormalities
Klinefelter: MALES. 2+ X; single Y (incomplete secondary sex characteristics, gynecomastia, low testosterone). Long arms and legs and tall. May have lang delay, LD, impaired problem-solving and social skills.

Turner: FEMALES. All or part of a X missing. (don’t develop secondary sex characteristics, infertile). short, stubby fingers, droopy eyelid, receding/small jaw, web neck. LD, vision/hearing probs, skeletal issues, heart defects, kidney and urinary tract issues.
Rett: X-linked dominant. Mutation in the MECP2 gene and affects FEMALES. Infants normal during 6-18 mo then slow head and brain growth. regression in speech and motor skills, abnormal head movements, sleep and breathing issues, seizures. ASD-like sx.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Down syndrome

A
  • autosomal disorder (abnormal NON-sex chromosome)
  • Symptoms include: ID/DD, hypotonia, short, stocky, wide face, thick tongue, almond-shaped eyes…Risk for vision/hearing probs, heart defects, hypothyroidism, Alzheimer’s

THREE TYPES:

(1) Trisomy 21: 95%. Extra 21st chromosome (each cell -> 47 instead of 46). Cell division error. Risk+ w/maternal age. Sharp+ after 30yo.
(2) Mosaic trisomy 21: 1%. Some cells contain extra 21st chromosome. Cell division error. Possible risk+ w/maternal age.
(3) Translocation trisomy: 4%. Some cells have full/partial 21st attached to another chromosome (usually 14). Cell division error or inherited. People may be carriers.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Teratogens

A

drugs, diseases, and environmental hazards that cause defects inutero.

-highest risk for major structural damage -> 3rd to 8th week.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol

A

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD):

(1) Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS); small eyes, thin upper lip, low physical growth, CENTRAL NERVOUS ISSUES (ID, low PSI, hyperactivity), heart/kidney/liver/organ issues, hearing&vision probs.
(2) Partial or pFAS: facial features less severe and may have normal growth.
(3) Alcohol-related neruodev. dis. (ARND): central nervous issues w/o facial or growth issues or physical defects.
(4) Alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD): physical defects (heart, kidney, vision, etc) w/o other symptoms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Prenatal Exposure to Cocaine

A

-spontaneous ABORTION during FIRST TRI, PREMIE, low birth weight.

Effects vary (e.g., amount and potency of cocaine, postnatal exposure, poverty, etc.)

  • Infants may be irritable, overly reactive, hard to calm and feed. PIERCING CRY.
  • Children may have motor, attention, memory, and bx probs.
  • Teens: trouble problem-solving and abstract reasoning; risk+ delinquency.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Low Birthweight,
Preterm, and
Small-forDate Infants

A

low birthweight = LESS THAN 5.5LBS.

Preterm: Before 37th week. May cause respiratory distress, comprised immune system, cardiovascular disorder, ID, visual and hearing probs. In US, decline but uptick in 2015,2016. Highest for black, lowest for Asian.

Small-for-Date: birthweight below 10th %tile for gestational age. Compounded risk w/preterm +Risk for death within 12mo, brain damage, immune-compromised, short in childhood, LD and bx issues in school.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Age of Viability

A
  • earliest baby can survive out of womb.

- Between 22-26 weeks after conception.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Moral Development -Piaget

A
  • Asked kids to respond to dilemmas w/rule game violations. Three stages.
    (1) PREMORAL STAGE: Birth to 5. Little understanding of rules and moral bx.
    (2) HETERONOMOUS STAGE: 5-6 yo start. Believe rules made by authorities and can’t change. When judging bx’s, BASED ON CONSEQUENCES of bx. Worse bx=worse consequences.
    (3) AUTONOMOUS STAGE: 10-11yo start. Believe rules determined by agreement btwn ppl and can be changed by agreement. When judging bx w/neg consequences, base judgement on ACTOR’S INTENTIONS.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Moral Development -Kohlberg

A

Studied by presenting moral dilemmas and asking for appraisals and explanations. Heinz dilemma…better for husband to steal drug to save wife or obey law. 3 levels w/2 stages. Related to cog development and social perspective-taking. Ability to predict higher at higher stages.

Level 1, Preconventional Morality.
(a) punishment and obedience stage: bx depends on whether it leads to punishment (b) instrumental hedonism stage: bx depends on whether it leads to rewards/satisfies needs.

Level 2, Conventional Morality. (a) good boy/girl stage. bx depends on social approval. (b) law and order orientation stage. bx depends on law/rule violation.

Level 3, Postconventional Morality: (a) morality of contract, rights, democratic law. Bx depends if consistent with democratically chosen laws. (b) Morality of individual principles of conscience. Bx depends on whether consistent with broad, general principles (e.g., justice, fairness).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Theories of Language Development

A

Learning: language dev result of imitation and reinforcement.

Nativists: (Chomsky). Bio programmed for language. Have Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that allows to understand and speak in rule governed ways. All lang. have basic grammatical structure and children pass through lang. dev at similar ages.

Social Interactionists: Lang. acquisition depends on bio and social factors (rich environment). Evidence is child-directed speech (parentese).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Components of Verbal Language

A

Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound. English =50.

Morphemes: Smallest unit of language that has meaning. Free can stand alone and are words. Bound are prefixes and suffixes.

Semantics: Meaning of words, phrases, sentences

Syntax: how words organized into phrases and words.

Pragmatics: lang used in social context (e.g., take turns in convo, use gestures to convey meaning).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Crying

A

Three types of cries in infancy:
-low-pitched rhythmic cry: hunger or discomfort
-shrill, less regular cry: anger or frustration
loud high-pitched cry followed by silence: pain

Inconsistent research on parent responsiveness to crying. Optimal response may depend on severity of distress in cries. Quickly to severe distress but less promptly to minor upset (to help regulate).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Langauge Milestones

A

Cooing: 6 to 8 weeks. Vowel-like sound repetitions.

Babbling: 3mo to 6mo. CV combo’s (e.g., ba, goo). First single, then canonical/reduplicated babbling. Then variegated babbling - mix diff. CV combo’s.

  • initially includes sounds from all languages, but 9mo narrows to sounds/intonation patterns of native lang.
  • if deaf: milestone the same to slightly later. Less frequent, limited, and deceases/stops unless given hearing aid/implant. If ASL, manual babbling @ 6mo to 8mo.

Echolalia: 9mo. Repeat w/o meaning.

Understand words: 8mo/9mo.

First Words: 10mo to 15mo. Familiar people, objects, actions.
-Vocab Spurt @ 18mo.

Holophrastic speech: 12mo to 15mo. Use single word to express whole thought. Use context and tone (e.g., juice).

Telegraphic speech: 18mo to 24mo. Linking two or more words.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Critical Period for Language Acquisition

A

increased age lowers language proficiency.

First-lang. acquisition:
-critical period may be late childhood/early teen

But other studies suggest different critical periods for different aspects of language

  • semantics and vocab less affected by age of exposure
  • syntax may have critical period of first year of life.
  • spoken and sign language show parallel dev trajectories.
34
Q

Language Development in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing (DHH) Children

A

Disagreement about whether optimal exposure for DHH children is access to spoken language with cochlear implants or hearing aids, access to American sign language (ASL) or other sign language, or a combo of the two.

Support for bimodal-bilingual approach:

(a) studies finding that exposure to sign language has negative effects on the acquisition of spoken language are methodologically flawed,
(b) cochlear implants and hearing aids vary in terms of their benefits for DHH children and can cause language deprivation,
(c) cochlear implants are ordinarily not implanted until children are 12 months of age or older while infants can be exposed to sign language from birth, and
(d) there is evidence that sign language benefits the acquisition of spoken language (e.g., non-signing children with cochlear implants can have significant language deficits compared to hearing peers while children with cochlear implants exposed to sign language since birth obtain comparable scores on language tests to hearing peers).

35
Q

Language Errors

A

At two or three years of age.

OVEREXTENSION: Use word too BROADLY (e.g., doggie for all animals)

UNDEREXTENSION: Use word too NARROWLY (e.g., only family dog is doggie)

OVERREGULARIZATION: MISAPPLY RULES for plurals and past tense (e.g., foots)

36
Q

Language Brokering

A

Act of translating and interpreting within multi-lingual households.

Linked to pos and neg effects for children and adolescents who act as language brokers.
Pos: Strong interpersonal skills, high levels of self-confidence, academic self-efficacy.
Neg: elevated anxiety, frustration, embarrassment. Also parents become overly dependent and may lead to greater parent-child conflict (e.g., Hua & Costigan, 2012; Umana-Taylor, 2002).

37
Q

Physical Development: Brain

A

25% @ birth. 80% at 2 years old.

Most neurons present@birth, BUT synaptogenesis=infancy. Peaks 2-3yo.
Synaptic Pruning=continues through teens.

PFC matures late teens-mid 20’s.

Brain weight/volume decrease starting @30yo.

  • Decrease accelerates about 60yo.
  • decrease in size greatest in frontal lobes (PFC) and parietal lobes.
  • Brain compensates w/new connections and neurogenesis (just new neurons) in hippocampus (etc)
38
Q

Physical Development: Vision

A

Least developed sense @birth. Prefer to look@patterned stimuli and prefer facial images. By 1-2mo, prefer mom/caregiver faces.

Newborns = limited visual acuity. (See@20ft what adults see@400-600ft). By 7-8mo, visual acuity similar to adults.

Depth perception - 3 types of depth info:
Kinetic (motion) cues: Based on movement of objects. 3-4weeks.
Binocular (stereoscopic) cues: Based on each eye image integration. 2-3mo.
Pictorial (static-monocular) cues: Based on only one eye. Create impression of depth, size, texture gradients, shadows, linear perspective. 5-6mo.

Vision (and Hearing) first to show age decline. 40 yo = presbyopia (hardening of eye lens that impacts focus nearby). Also decreased sensitivity to dim light, slower dark adaptation, sensitive to glare, reduced color and depth discrimination.

39
Q

Physical Development: Audition

A

Newborns less sensitive to high-frequency sounds.
Quickly develops - adult levels @6mo.

Shortly after birth, infants prefer mother’s voice.

Infants -> sound/auditory localization (reflexive turn head to sound source). Decreases @2-4mo. Re-emerges and becomes deliberate/precise@12mo.

Declines around 40yo. Presbycusis: decreased sensitivity to high-frequency sounds (e.g., women, young children, fricative consonants like f, s, t). Exacerbated by background noise. Some research - severity of age-related hearing loss related to Alzhiemer’s/other neurocog disorder risk.

40
Q

Physical Development: Pain/Touch

A

First sense to develop in utero.
Newborns respond to cheek touch by turning head. Also sensitive to pain .

Early exposure experiences impact future pain response, but depends on gestation age (full/pre)term.

Full-term: Circumcision w/o anesthesia = more pain sensitivity (4-6mo later).

Pre-term: Circumcision w/o anesthesia = less pain responsivity

41
Q

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

A

Infant younger than 1yo.
Link to serotonin abnormalities in medulla (required for involuntary functions like breathing).

Risks: male, Black/Native Am, 6mo or younger (peak@2-4mo), premie, low birth weight, poor prenatal care, prenatal exposure to drugs/alcohol/cigs, unsafe sleeping practices.

Reduce Risk: safe sleep practices, breast feeding, avoid overheating, sharing a room (not bed) w/baby, pacifier w/o strap.

42
Q

Gross Motor Milestones

A

1-3 mo: chin&chest up. Rolls to side.
4-6mo: sit w/ trunk support. then pelvic. Roll front to back. Arms out when falling.
7-9mo: sit w/o support. Pull to sit/stand. Begin crawl.
10-12mo: Crawl well. Cruises furniture. Walk assisted. First steps.
13-15mo: Stand w/o pulling up. Walk well. bend to pick up toy. Walks carrying toy.
16-18mo: walk backward. walk up stairs w/hand. Run well. Throw ball.
19-30mo: Walk down stairs w/hand. Walk both ways on stairs w/both feet on each step. Kick ball,
31-36: Walks w/swinging arms/opposite legs. Balance leg on one foot for 3sec. Walk up stairs w/alternating feet w/o rail. Tricycle. Catches w/stiff arms.
4yo: Hop on one foot 2-3 times. Balance on foot 4-8 sec. Catches bounced ball. Throws overhand 10ft.
5yo: Walk down stairs w/alternating ft w/o rail. Hop on one foot 15times. Balance on foot 8+ sec. Walks backward heel-toe. Jump backward.

43
Q

Physical Maturation in Adolescence

A

Growth spurt and puberty happen about same time.

10-11 yo for girls. 12-13 yo for boys.

Boys early onset: positive consequences (self-esteem, social maturity, popularity, athletic skills…but also alcohol use, antisocial bx, and sexual activity).
Girls early onset: negative consequences (low self-esteem, unpopular, poor academics, sexual activity, substance use, depression, eating disorders).

Boys late onset: Negative consequences (low self-esteem, unpopular, poor academics, higher depression/anxiety).
Girls late onset: positive consequences (higher sociability, popularity, academic achievement).

44
Q

Adolescent Substance Use

A

National Survey of Drug Use and Health: substance use for 12-17yo has declined. Monthly use in 2018 - 9% Use alcohol (.9 sought help), 8% use illicit drugs (.8 sought help), 4.2% use taboo products. Only .4 sought help for both booze and drugs.

Of protective favors, religiosity, self-control, and parental support have BUFFERING EFFECT (i.e., counteract risks).

Brain Impact:
Limbic system develops before PFC.
Limbic system involved in motivation/emotion and includes nucleus accumbens (reward circuit).
Teens likely to make decisions based on emotions/pleasure.
Teens using at greater risk for substance use disorders then those that delay drug/alcohol usage.

45
Q

Temperament

A

Genetic but also environmentally influenced predictable way we respond. Building block for personality. Low to moderate stability over time. Becomes more stable after 3yo.

46
Q

Theories of Temperament

A

Thomas and Chess

  • Temp is bx style. 9 dimensions. Categories are Easy Children, Slow-to-warm-up Children (mild neg mood, low activity, moderately regular feed/sleep schedule), and Difficult Children (neg mood, often cry, high activity, irregular feed/sleep schedule).
  • Goodness-of-fit model: outcomes affected by temp. and environment demands match (e.g., Difficult Child can benefit from structure).

Rothbart

  • Temp is CONSTITUTIONAL DIFFERENCE (influenced by all the things) in reactivity/regulation.
  • Reactivity: Two Factors (1) surgency/extraversion - high activity, pleasure seeking, low shyness (2) negative affectivity - unstable mood, tend to be sad, scared, irritable.
  • Self-Regulation: One Factor…EFFORTFUL CONTROL: ability to inhibit dominant response. Temperament can be assessed over lifespan.

Kagan

  • Focus on Behavioral Inhibition (BI): Neg affect/withdrawal for unfamiliar ppl.
  • Research: continuity for those with high BI. Associated with anxiety (social), depression, poorer social functioning throughout life. Parents have higher rates of childhood anxiety and continuing anxiety disorders as adults.
47
Q

Personality: Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

A

Libido (sexual energy) focused in different body area in each stage. Too much or too little gratification = fixation at that stage (e.g., thumb sucking, chain smoking, dependence on others).

Birth-1 year: Oral
1-3 years: Anal
3-6 years: Phallic
6-12 years: Latency
Adolescence: Genital
48
Q

Personality: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

A

Social and Cultural factors influence personality - which dev throughout.
Each stage has psychosocial conflict. More successful resolution = better outcome.

Stages/VIRTUES
Birth-1 year: Trust v. Mistrust/HOPE
1-3 years: Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt/WILL
3-6 years: Initiative v. Guilt/PURPOSE
6-12 years: Industry v. Inferiority/COMPETENCE
Adolescence: Identity v. Role Confusion/FIDELITY
Young Adulthood: Intimacy v. Isolation/LOVE
Middle Adulthood: Generativity v. Stagnation/CARE
Late Adulthood: Integrity v. Despair/WISDOM

49
Q

Parenting Style and Personality/Behavior

A

Four Parenting Styles with different dimensions of DEMANDINGNESS (control) and RESPONSIVENESS (acceptance/warmth)

Authoritative Parents: High both demandingness and responsiveness. Clear rules. Warm. Encourage autonomy. Best outcomes. Link to academic achievement may be contingent on culture factors (e.g., good grades for white kids but not asian/black).

Authoritarian Parents: High demandingness, Low responsiveness. Rules. Emphasize respect. Hard forms of punishment. Little nurturing. Discourage autonomy. Outcomes: moody, insecure, dependent, irritable, poor social/grades. Increased likelihood of bullying others and being bullied (to lesser extent). Linked to increased risk for externalizing bx’s.

Permissive Parents: Low demandingness, High responsiveness. No rules. Encourage feelings expressed. Extremely accepting/supportive of ALL bx. Outcomes: self-centered, immature, rebellious, impulsive, poor social and grades. Increased risk for being bullied and bullying others (to lesser extent).

Uninvolved Parents: Low both demandingness, responsiveness. Rejecting-Neglecting. Unaware of child needs/more concerned about own. Worst outcomes: low self-esteem/self-control, moody, irritable, noncompliant, demanding, poor social/grades, prone to drugs and antisocial bx.

50
Q

Personality Changes in Adulthood

A

High rank-order stability over lifespan but predictable mean-level changes for some traits in middle/late adulthood.

OCEAN/Big Five
During adulthood:
neuroticism decreases,
extraversion and openness to experience stable/decrease slightly,
agreeableness and conscientiousness increase

Sex differences small/consistent across cultures (especially individualistic).

  • Women=higher scores on neuroticism, agreeableness, warmth, opens to feelings.
  • Men=higher assertiveness and openness to ideas.
51
Q

Self-Awareness

A

4 day olds = faster heartbeats in response to own recorded cries.
18mo = mirror self-recognition test (facial mark test). Red sticker on face in front of mirror.

Self-Understanding (part of self awareness): predictable changes.
Early Childhood: 2-6yo, gender and age followed by concrete observable characteristics about themselves.
Middle Childhood: 7-11yo. General self-descriptions, refer to personality traits, social comparisons.
Adolescents: 12-18yo. Describe abstract qualities, beliefs, values (e.g., strong believer in XYZ). Recognize characteristics are dynamic/context dependent.

52
Q

Gender Identity Theories

A

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (Kohlberg, 1956): Gender ID depends on cognitive development.
-Three Stages: gender identity (2-3yo, ID as male/female), gender stability (4yo, gender consistent over time), gender constancy (6-7yo. When understand conversion. Gender stable across situations). Predicts children don’t adopt gender-typed bx until gender constancy reached (but children prefer same-gender roles/activities long before).

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Gender-typed preferences/bx precedes gender-related beliefs. social factors…gender development -observation and imitation of same-gender bx and differential reinforcement.

GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (Bern’s, 1981): Combo cog dev and social learning theory. Children organize gender-typed experiences/info into gender schemas used to perceive, encode, interpret. People vary in reliance of gender schemas.

  • Gender-schematic: Gender is salient. Use gender norms to guide.
  • Gender-aschematic: Gender not front and center.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL (Egan and Perry, 2001). Gender consists of FIVE COMPONENTS.
Membership knowledge: awareness of own gender.
Gender Typicality: Congruence of self w/ gender.
Gender Contentedness: Degree of satisfaction w/gender.
Felt Pressure: Pressure to conform to gender norms.
Intergroup Bias: Belief gender is superior to others.
*research - components related to adjustment. (e.g., high gender typicality and contendeness = high self-esteem, peer acceptance. High felt pressure - adjustment probs.)

53
Q

Gender Identity - Psychological Androgyny

A

Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI):
FOUR SCALES
Feminine, Masculine, Androgynous, Undifferentiated.

Androgyny = desirable. Gives greater repertoire to respond to situations. Higher self-esteem. More likable. Better adjusted.

*research inconsistent. Masculine traits (not androgynous) = more high self-esteem, pos adjustment, etc.

54
Q

Adolescent Identity Development

A

(Marcia, 1966). Extents Erikson’s ideas. FOUR IDENTITY STATUSES.

IDENTITY DIFFUSION: No crisis. No ID commitment.
IDENTITY FORECLOSURE: No crisis. Strong ID commitment.
IDENTITY MORATORIUM: Yes crisis. No ID commitment.
IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: Yes crisis. Strong ID commitment.

  • ID formation occurs at different rates for different aspects.
  • Some may recycle through ID moratorium and ID achievement during adulthood.
55
Q

Attachment: Early Research

A

Harlow/Zimmerman (1959) wire-mesh and cloth mothers = CONTACT COMFORT important contributor.

Bowlby’s (1969) ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: mom/babies predisposed to form attachment (e.g., babies suck, cry, smile, coo). FOUR STAGES within TWO YEARS: Pre-atachment, attachment-in-the-making, clear-cut attachment, reciprocal relationships. Influence INTERNAL WORKING MODELS.

56
Q

Attachment: Signs and Patterns

A

SIGNS:
First apparent @ 6mo. Social Referencing (6-8mo, look to parents to know how to act) Separation Anxiety (6-8mo, most intense from 14-18mo then decreases), Stranger Anxiety (begins 8-10mo. decline starts @2yo).

Patterns:
Ainsworth et al., “strange situation”.
SECURE: Explore. May/may not cry when mom leaves. Seek contact when returns. Prefer over stranger. (moms are sensitive/responsive)
INSECURE/RESISTANT (ambivalent): Stay close. Distressed when leave. Angry/resist when mom returns. Fearful of strangers even with mom. (moms are inconsistent).
INSECURE/AVOIDANT: Indifferent to mom. Little distress when she leaves, avoids when she returns. Treat mom/strangers same. (moms are rejecting or intrusive and over-stimulating).
DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: Fearful of mom. May/may not be distressed when leaves. Confused w/strangers. (moms=maltreatment).

57
Q

Attachment: Consequences and Impact of SES/Culture

A

CONSEQUENCES:
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)…adults classified as:
AUTONOMOUS: Children have secure attach. Provide descriptions of relationship w/parents.
PREOCCUPIED: Angry, confused, or passive preoccupation of relationship w/ parent. Children have resistant attachment.
DISMISSING: Pos description of relationship w/parents, but not supported by actual memories. Children have avoidant attachment.

SES:
Low-SES = more insecurely attached (more due to risk factors of low SES…can still be secure attached w/good parenting).
Secure Attachment most common in BOTH Western and Non-Western.
Cultural diff. in insecure attachment….
-Insecure/Avoidant more common in Individualistic Cultures (e.g., US, Germany).
-Insecure/Resistant more common in Collectivist Culture (e.g., Japan, Israel).

58
Q

Early Separation from Caregivers

A

Schaffer and Calender (1959): Hospitalizations and Infancy

  • 7mo and younger, little distress
  • Over 7mo, stranger anxiety, not soothed. When went home, clingy, cry when separated, sleep/appetite disturbances.
  • Suggests Critical Period of hospitalization = trauma is middle/late of first year.
59
Q

Early Emotions/Facial Expressions

A

EARLY EMOTIONS - Predictable
PRIMARY Emotions: Birth-18mo.
-Birth: Contentment, Interest, Distress
-6mo: Joy, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust, Anger, Fear.
SECONDARY Emotions: Due to self-awareness.
-18-24mo: Envy, Empathy, Embarrassment.
-30-36mo: Shame, Guilt, Pride.

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS of EMOTIONS: looking-time and event-related-potential (ERP) paradigms.

  • Some facial expression discrimination at birth but not reliable until 5-7mo.
  • 7mo begin to categorize facial expressions they see
  • Younger than 7mo, prefer happy expressions;
  • older than 7mo til 12mo, prefer fearful expressions (fear bias bc novel).
  • 10-18mo, understand affective meaning. e.g., ppl express happy when get toy.
60
Q

Age-Related Changes in Emotions and Emotional Memory

A

CHANGES IN EMOTIONS:

  • Neg Emotions decrease from early 20s to mid-60s. Pos emotions stable/increase.
  • Mid 60s on, research inconsistent on changes in neg emotions. May be due to health status. between 70-100.

CHANGES IN EMOTIONAL MEMORY:
Positivity Effect - older adults prefer/attend/recall more positive memories (than neg) from past.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST): Predicts older adults motivated by emotional gratification.

61
Q

Role of Shame and Guilt

A

Self-conscious emotions. Research looks at how they inhibit transgressions.

Lickel (2014) - role in motivation in young adults to change. Both shame and guilt induced motivation to change, BUT motivation stronger for SHAME.

SHAME more likely to induce motivation to distance self from event; GUILT more likely to induce motivation to apologize/repair.

62
Q

Aggression

A

Instrumental Agg. AKA Proactive Agg. -> fulfill need/desire.
Hostile Agg.: AKA Reactive Agg. -> Driven by anger to hurt someone.
*Can be physical, verbal, or relational.
*Physical evident by 1yo, peak @2yo, and dominant until 4yo (verbal/relational age more common).

CAUSES:
Coercive Family Interaction Model: Parents temp stop misbx w/threats/physical punishment, children learn can stop parent bx w/ignoring or tantrum, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate over time.
-Coercive discipline more likely w/family stressors, difficult temperament.
-PMTO (parent management training -Oregon model).

Social Information Processing Model: agg children respond…
ENCODING of CUES: focus on hostile intention aspects.
INTERPRETATION of CUES: Hostile attribution bias to assume hostile intent in ambiguous sitches.
CLARIFICATION of GOALS: Retaliation as goal.
RESPONSE SEARCH: ID few options for responding, most aggro.
RESPONSE DECISION: Choose aggro response bc believe will have good outcome.
BEHAVIORAL ENACTMENT: Act aggro.

**APA Task Force: Violent games related to aggressive/violent bx and decrease in prosocial bx in teens/young adults, even when control for aggression risk factors. Limited though, so caution needed for girls, ethnic minorities, children under 10.

63
Q

Interventions for Aggression

A

Parent training: Good for parent-child interactions/reducing aggression&externalizing bx’s.
-Moderated by initial severity of sx, SES….Low SES benefit less when sx are milder and at 1 year post-tx, low SES benefit less regardless of severity.

CULTURE OF HONOR: More prevalent in South. Concern over status/reputation.

  • Greater violence acceptance may be due to hot temps, poverty, slavery, economy based on herding (livelihood easily lost). So may overreact to any perceived threat.
  • Evident in laws/policies, homocide rates.
  • SOUTHERN WHITE MEN - react w/higher level of anger, more increases of cortisol and testosterone, more likely to endorse violent response and critical of men who don’t.
64
Q

Play

A

Parten (1932). Pre-K children study.
NONSOCIAL PLAY: unoccupied (aimless), solitary (alone, decrease w/age), onlooker (watch but no participation).
SOCIAL PLAY: parallel play (decrease w/age), associative play (interact w/o shared goals, increase w/age), cooperative play (increase w/age).

Gender Segregation: children choose same gender playmates between 2-3yo (girls show earlier than boys). Occurs even when cross-gender play encouraged. Intensifies in early/middle childhood. Then stable.

65
Q

Friendships in Childhood/ Adolescence

A

Selman (1980) - friendship insight related to perspective-taking.
FIVE LEVELS
Level 0/Momentary Playmates – “I Want It My Way?” (about 3 to 6 years of age): friends are children playing with or who live nearby.

Level 1/One-Way Assistance – “What’s In It For Me?” (about 5 to 9 years of age): recognize friendships extend beyond current activities, friends are children who do nice things. Don’t think about their role in friendship.

Level 2/Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation – “By The Rules” (about 7 to 12 years of age): Concerned about fairness/reciprocity in friendships. Believe nice things reciprocated otherwise friendship likely to end.

Level 3/Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships – “Caring and Sharing” (8 to 15 years of age): share secrets and do things for each other because genuinely care. Feel betrayed when BFF spends time w/ someone else.

Level 4/Mature Friendship – “Friends Through Thick and Thin” (12 years of age and older): Value emotional closeness w/friends. Accept differences between self & friends and less likely to feel threatened when close friend has other friendships.

66
Q

Peer Status

A

Berk (2010). Unpopular kids rejected or neglected.
REJECTED-AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN: hyperactive/impulsive, peer conflict, emotional dysregulation, misinterpret intentions as hostile.
REJECTED-WITHDRAWN: submissive, social anxiety, neg expectations.
NEGLECTED CHILDREN: low rates of peer interactions, rare disruptive bx’s, usually well-adjusted.

*Outcomes worse for actively rejected children (more lonely, low self-esteem, no improvement in status w/change in schools or social groups)

67
Q

Social Relationships in Adulthood (Carstensen, 90’s)

A

SOCIOEOMTIONAL SELECTIVITY THEORY: motivation to make friends related to perception on time left in life.

  • If view unlimited time: future-oriented, knowledge-seeking are motivators. Prefer friends who provide useful future info. Younger more likely (unless terminal illness).
  • If view limited time: present-oriented, emotional closeness are motivators. More selective of friends, prefer friendships that evoke positive feelings and avoid neg ones. Older adults more likely.

EMOTION REGULATION: looked at happy/unhappy married couples and communication styles.

  • unhappily married older couples LESS LIKELY to engage in “negative start-up” (respond to neutral affect w/neg emotions).
  • WHY? unhappily married older couples have learned strategies that limit experiencing neg emotions
68
Q

Predictors of Divorce

A

Gottman Levenson (2002) Longitudinal Studies.

Emotionally volatile (attach-defend) pattern: frequent arguments w/making-up. Divorce early in marriage. Couples engage in escalating conflicts (e.g., criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling = Four Horseman). Contempt is best predictor of divorce.

Emotionally inexpressive (avoidant) pattern: Avoidance of conflict. Later divorce. Couples avoid self-disclosure and expressing emotions.

Also risk for divorce…

  • decreases w/age.
  • more likely if low SES, child before marriage, prior marriage.
  • psychiatric disorders before or during.
  • High neuroticism = high risk for divorce.
69
Q

Consequences of Divorce

A

Effects on Parents: diminished capacity to parent for up to 2 years following divorce. Includes reduced sensitivity to children and preoccupation w/divorce probs. Moms w/custody = less affection (especially w/sons), less consistent and more authoritarian. Dads w/o custody = more indulgent and permissive.

Effects on Children: Moderated by child adjustment before divorce, age, and gender.

  • PreK have most neg outcomes in short-run. Will have few memories of divorce period.
  • Older children more neg in long-term. Painful divorce memories and concerned w/own ability to have successful marriage.
  • Boys more neg effects; however, girls may be internalizing and experience “sleeper effect”.
  • Girls sleeper effect: elementary age -> few probs initially but noncompliant and low-self esteem and teen emotional probs and pregnancy before marriage, marry young, worry excessively about abandonment and betrayal in romantic relationships.
  • Frequency of contact w/ dad w/o custody has less impact than child support payments, closeness of father-child relationship, reliance on authoritative parenting style.

*children from highly conflictual intact families more poorly adjusted than children from low-conflict divorced families.

70
Q

Stepfamilies

A
  • small effect: children w/both bio parents have better outcomes than children with one bio and step-parent.
  • longitudinal studies -> adjustment in “simple” stepfamilies improves over time and better than that of “blended” stepfamilies and intact conflicted families.
  • best outcomes if both bio/step parent have authoritative parenting style, stepparent is supportive of bio parent decisions, and has relationship w/stepchildren before disciplining.

Gender and Age differences:

  • girls more difficulty adjusting to stepparents (e.g., hostile w/stepfather and more academic/bx probs, stepmother as threat to relationships w/bio parents).
  • boys w/stepfathers benefit from self-concept, academics, adjustment; w/stepmothers may benefit from added support.
  • 9-15yo (pre and early teen) = more problems. May be difficult due to issues related to identity and sexuality, etc.
71
Q

Premarital Cohabitation and Divorce

A

If cohabitate before marriage = higher rate of divorce (initial studies).

  • in early 2000’s, no longer true but more complex, cohabitate before marriage = DECREASED likelihood for divorce in first year but increased in later years.
  • Also age more important than cohabitation for predicting divorce. Younger age at first cohabitation/first marriage = increased risk for divorce
72
Q

Transition to Parenthood and Relationship Quality

A

Decline in relationship satisfaction; increase relationship conflict.

  • Parents through adoption = better outcomes. Less marital and parenting stress, small decrease in marital satisfaction, more stable pattern of relationship quality.
  • Also factor: available support from family and friends. Degree parents share parenting duties.
  • Greater decline in satisfaction = greater disparity
73
Q

Adopted v. Bio Children

A

Parents of adopted children = better educated/higher fam income.
BUT bio children better outcomes overall. Adopted children -> more likely to have school/bx probs, higher rates of internalizing and externalizing bxs.

-international adoptees –> lower rates of internalizing/externalizing probs compared to DOMESTIC adoptees. Probs due to pre-adoption risk factors.

74
Q

Helicopter Parent

A

More benevolent than (Baumrind’s) authoritarian parenting style (but similar level of control and neg outcomes).

Outcomes: stress, anxiety, entitlement, low autonomy, emotional/behavioral dysregulation, decreased academic perf/motivation.
-in college students -> depression, substance use, low competence with friends/romantic relationships.

Also link w/poor emotional functioning, decision-making, academic functioning for ages 17-25.

75
Q

Gay and Lesbian Parents

A

Child outcomes do not differ in consistent way. Parenting skills of gay/lesbians similar or better.

76
Q

Custodial Grandparents

A

Pos consequences: closer relationship, increased purpose, opportunity to nurture familial relationships, second change of life.

Neg: stress, depression, anxiety, insomnia, chronic health problems. (probs due to self-neglect, financial difficulties, social isolation, conflict w/bio parents, etc.)

77
Q

Intimate Parter Violence (IPV)

  • Walker’s Cycle of Violence
  • Johnson’s Typology
A

Walker - three phases over time
Tension Building Phase: hostility builds. argue over domestic issues. Victim attempts to placate to please/calm.
Acute Battering Incident: Verbal/physical attacks. Victim unable to control abuser’s hostility/unconsciously provokes to relieve tension.
Loving Contrition Phase: Honeymoon. Express of remorse. Tries to convince victim won’t happen again.

Johnson’s Typology. Two factors (1) motivation for violence (2) frequency of violence from either partner.

  • Intimate Terrorism: Male uses violence to control (physical, threats, financial control, sexual/emotional abuse, isolating victim).
  • Violent Resistance: female retaliates/defends self (or escapes).
  • Mutual Violent Control: Both partners attempt to gain control over relationship. LEAST COMMON IPV.
  • Situational Couple Violence: Can be male or female, one-sided or mutual. Situationally provoked. Desire to control situation but not more general desire to control relationship. MOST COMMON TYPE OF IPV.
78
Q

Child Maltreatment

A

Order of most to least common: NEGLECT, PHYSICAL ABUSE, SEXUAL ABUSE, PSYCH MALTREATMENT.

Risks: age (younger age, highest below 1yo), gender (girls), race/ethnicity (Native Am/Alaska Native then black), family structure (single-parent or step/cohabiting family).

Outcomes:

  • increased obesity (but mediated by depression).
  • Child Sexual Abuse (CSA): females -> more depression/internalizing. males -> more conduct probs/aggro/externalizing.
  • mental health probs. other difficulties throughout lifetime
  • BETRAYAL TRAUMA THEORY: CSA from family member = worse mental health outcomes.
  • Worse if chronic, w/force, w/penetration.

Tx:
parent-child interaction therapy: OG for bx disorders. Good for 2-12yo. Physical or Emotional Abuse. Includes didactic parent training and live coaching. First child-directed interaction phase (develop good interactions/bond) then parent-directed to teach parents behavior management.
TF-CBT: For 3-18yo. Sexual Abuse/maltreatment, witness DV, PTSD sx. Includes psychoed, parent training, relaxation techs, affect regulation, expression techs, exposures, cognitive coping.

79
Q

Daycare

A

(high quality) May increase bx probs but improve cog and language performance and social skills.

Infants similar in terms of attachment (w/ or w/o daycare).

Quality of parent caregiving and parent-child bond most important for attachment security.

80
Q

Cultural Socialization

A

Used by ethnic/racial minority groups in US to teach children re: their culture/instill pride.
May include how to deal w/discrimination/racial prejudice.

*Linked w/pos outcomes (e.g., positive self-concept, ethnic/racial identity, better grades/motivation, fewer externalizing/internalizing problems.

81
Q

Teacher Expectations and Teacher Interactions w/Students

A

Teacher expectations are self-fulfilling prophecy. If ID’ed as “bloomers”, then unusual increase in IQ scores bc better tx.

Student interactions: Reflect gender stereotypes…e.g., call on male students more and give male students more attention, praise, feedback, encouragement.

EPPP (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions