Lifespan and Science Inquiry Flashcards

Question

Childhood ( 1-12 yrs ) Physical

Answer 1

1yrs: Fine Motor: spoon, scribbling with a pen, unzipping zipper Gross Motor Skill: walk, up steps, run,kick or throw a ball 5yrs: Fine Motor: turn book pages, use scissors Gross Motor: hop, swing, run easily and walk up and down stair.

Answer 2

Age 3: vocab of 200 sentences of 2 or 4 words are used Age 5: speak clearly, tell simple stories, and understand basic grammar. Age 11: have vocab of 19000 words

Answer 3

Between 15 mths - 2 years: children experience self-awareness Age 2: show affection to their family, engage in prentend play, have temper tantrum. age 5: cooperate with other children, range of complex and develops self-concept age 12: self esteem develops and decline at 12 6-12: develop relationships outisde of family

Answer 4

Fine motor skills: to sew, write ,draw and play an instrument requiring fine muscle coordination Gross motor skills: to play adult sport s with specilaised skills within the sport

Answer 5

- neural connections and pathways could not change with age… we now know, thanks to advances in brain scanning techniques e.g. fMRI, that this is incorrect. - Neural connections can change throughout life (early childhood, adulthood etc..) - They can influence bad habits and reinforce good habits. - They can influence human emotion, thinking and decision making. If you do not use these neural pathways, they will weaken and die. The more that you use neural pathways they will strengthen and adapt.

Answer 6

BRAIN PLASTICITY is the ability of neural connections to grow and reorganise.

Answer 7

Neuroplasticity provides protective effects in managing traumas during human development. This occurs in all healthy people, especially children, after various problems like brain injuries. Plasticity allows the brain to cope better with the indirect effects of brain damage resulting from inadequate blood supply following a stroke. - the nervous system needs to rearrange itself to adapt to the unfolding situation that it faces. - The genes program the body to have neuroplasticity so that animals can survive in unpredictable environments.

Answer 8

: The ability of neural connections in the brain to reorganise in response to sensory input from the environment. * Occurs over a lifespan but diminishes with age.

Answer 9

the ability of neural connections in the brain to reorganise in response to learning new information, or to compensate for lost functions and take advantage of remaining functions.

Answer 10

* EXAMPLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY: A baby practising a motor skill, such as turning the wheels of a toy truck (brain is functionally reorganised).

Answer 11

* EXAMPLE OF ADAPTIVE PLASTICITY: Individual who has suffered a stroke is now suffering from Broca’s aphasia. This individual will be experiencing a heightened state of plasticity where neural connections will be rearranged and re-established. Speech therapy will be important

Answer 12

PROLIFERATION: Is the growth and division of cells, including neurons, that leads to the increase in the total cell number. While most neurons are already formed when the infant is born, some neurons are still created during infancy. There is still debate over whether the production of new neurons continues into childhood and throughout adulthood.

Answer 13

While an infant is born with around 100 billion neurons, there are still neurons being generated after birth from deep inside the brain. Newly generated neurons move throughout the brain until reaching their final position; this position allows for connections between neurons (neural circuits) to be made. Neurons migrate by following chemical trails laid down by other neurons, or by moving along scaffolding fibres in the brain. Research has shown that the migration of neurons end around the age of five months.

Answer 14

After neurons have migrated. Neurons are able to form neural circuits (neural connections) whereby neurons send electrochemical messages between each other. These connections can be within clusters of neurons, as well as over larger distances within the brain. During infancy, neural circuits develop rapidly, especially in primary sensory cortex and primary visual cortex.

Answer 15

As infants are born with more neurons than required, neurons that do not form active neural connections die, those that have strengthen. Synaptic pruning increases the efficiency of the nervous system by allowing remaining neural connections to strengthen and grow in complexity.

Answer 16

A fatty substance called myelin starts growing over the axons of neurons, insulating neural connections, and allowing for faster and more efficient nerve impulse travel throughout the brain. Myelination contributes to the dramatic brain growth typical in infants. Myelination begins in the spinal cord, then in the hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain and finally, in the peripheral nervous system.

Answer 17

* Circuit formation continues during childhood : the volume of grey matter is at its maximum. * Synaptic pruning :increasing brain efficiency and specialisation of brain areas in response to sensory experiences. * Loss of grey matter is a result of synaptic pruning progresses from the back of the front of the brain, with the pre-frontal cortex being the last to structurally change. * The neural connections that remain after synaptic pruning undergo myelination, and while the process occurs in a few areas of the brain during adolescence, it does not occur in the pre-frontal cortex until approximately age 20. * While young children can perform goal-directed behaviour through planning, attention and impulse control, these executive functions controlled by the prefrontal cortex are not able to be consistently used until brain plasticity occurs during adolescence.

Answer 18

MAIN ROLE of the CEREBELLUM that you are aware of includes: * Balance and co-ordination * Posture * Fine motor movement * Voluntary control However, there is evidence that suggest the cerebellum links with emotional regulation (e.g. aggression), risk-taking behaviour, emotional memory storage. - Synaptic pruning affects behaviour and emotion significantly due to cerebellum (which takes up 10% of brain volume), consists of more than 50% of the neurons in the brain. - Activity in the cerebellum has been linked to decision making, reward learning, motivation, emotional control and processing mood. - Teenagers who are yet to have a fully developed typically display impulsive decision making and have some difficulties regulating emotion.

Answer 19

The corpus callosum is a thick band of fibres that allows for communication between the two hemispheres Thickness of corpus callosum increases during adolescence through the process of myelination. Corpus callosum does not grow uniformly (various regions grow at different rates). Hormonal surges may account for these growth patterns. As the neural networks strengthen, leading to a stronger connection between two hemispheres , behaviour and emotional regulation continue to improve

Answer 20

-collection of nuceli deep within each temporal lobe -play a role in emotional response (including modulation of fear) and the immediate behavioural reactions as a response to emotion. -In adults – prefrontal cortex regulates the amygdala but during adolescence this is not the case as the prefrontal cortex is still developing, as are the connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Instead of the prefrontal cortex leading actions based on rational and logical thinking, the volatile amygdala guides many of the automatic actions. The amygdala is highly reactional to emotional stimuli, such as facial expressions of other people, and situations perceived to be stressful. This leads to teenagers being more likely to misinterpret emotions of others and social cues, consequently get into accidents or behave inappropriately without thinking before they act.

Answer 21

FRONTAL LOBE DURING ADOLESCENCE: * The frontal lobes evaluate emotions and use rational thinking when referring to past experiences before responding in a conscious manner. This control of voluntary behaviour is not characteristic of teenagers as these lobes are one of the last regions of the brain to mature FRONTAL LOBES DURING ADOLESCENCE; MYELINATION * The frontal lobes are not completely myelinated until around the age of thirty, therefore teenagers have less white matter (myelinated axons) in this region compared to adults. * Myelinated neurons improve connectivity between parts of the brain, and with the frontal lobes not yet fully connected, the reduced ability to integrate information from the brain regions affects cognition and emotional processes. * The connection between frontal lobes and amygdala, for example, is still strengthening during adolescence, therefore teenagers may exhibit limited impulse control, poor decision making and planning and reduced emotional regulation (typically leading to mood swings).

Answer 22

PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX DEVELOPMENT * Synaptic pruning begins at the back of the brain and continues forward with the prefrontal cortex being the last part of the brain to develop. * This region is responsible for problem solving, attention and the ability to predict consequences of behaviours by referring to past experiences, and assessing whether these behaviours will lead to reaching a desired goal. * This makes it easier to understand why some teenagers do not seem to assess potential risks and end up engaging in risky and dangerous behaviour. * The ability to regulate emotion continues to improve during adolescence, as too does the ability to recognise emotions in other people.

Answer 23

Piaget believed that all children pass through a series of distinct, age-related stages in cognitive development. He proposed that children’s thinking developed through a process of mental adaptation. They take in new information, interpret it and organise it in a way that makes sense to them.

Answer 24

Assimilation: involves the child applying existing mental structures or processes to new experiences.

Answer 25

Accommodation: involves the child changing their mental idea or representation in response to new information or experiences

Answer 26

Schema: the mental representation developed from their experiences, that represents a person’s general knowledge about different kinds of objects and events.

Answer 27

EQUILIBRIUM: the state experienced when existing schema (based on prior knowledge), can account for new information.

Answer 28

DISEQUILIBRIUM: the state experienced when existing schema are unable to account for new information.

Answer 29

- Children learn to coordinate purposeful movements with information from the senses by looking at, touching and mouthing objects in their immediate environment. - Key characteristics and cognitive accomplishments: Goal-directed behaviour: learning that there is a relationship between their actions and the external world, where they can manipulate objects and produce effects. Object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.

Answer 30

Children begin to use language and engage in symbolic thinking, enabling them to use symbols, gestures and images to mentally represent people, objects and events that may not be present. This is often shown in pretend play. Key characteristics and cognitive accomplishments: Animism: tendency to believe that any inanimate object possesses lifelike characteristics, such as feelings and emotions. Egocentrism: tendency to view situations and events only from their own perspective, with the belief that others will see things from the same point of view as them. Centration: to narrowly focus on one aspect of a problem, object or situation at a time, while excluding all others. SYMBOLIC THINKING: the use of symbols, such as words or objects, to represent alternative concepts. * Example: child making a pretend cake with wet sand SERITATION: The ability to arrange a collection of items or situations in a logical series. Testing seriation: * Child is provided a variety of objects and asked to order them in according size ANIMISM: Tendency of children to believe that any inanimate object possesses lifelike characteristics, such as feelings and emotions * E.g. pretend play doctors and looking after a teddy bear.

Answer 31

* Think logically and carry out mental operations provided they are working with concrete materials (ie - materials that can be experienced through the senses). * Achieves conservation. * Can classify. * Can start to use ‘representations’ of materials towards the end. * Reversibility Key characteristics and cognitive accomplishments: Conservation: occurs when a child understands that physical properties, such as mass, volume, number and length, do not change (are conserved) even when their shape or appearance changes. Reversibility of thought: allows children to recognise that if 4 + 2 = 6, then 2 + 4 does, too. Classification: the ability of children to be able to group together or categorise objects based on similar properties

Answer 32

* ABSTRACT THINKING * Thinking that does not require the use of concrete materials to reason about them. * Able to talk about abstract concepts such as ‘honesty’ and ‘morality’. * Can discuss possible outcomes without experiencing them. * E.g., abstract concept – can humans live under water. * LOGICAL THINKING * Can work through a problem systematically; test hypotheses, etc. Key characteristics and cognitive accomplishments: Abstract thinking: thinking in terms of general concepts rather than specific objects, experiences or events. Can think about things they are yet to experience or things they can’t directly see or touch. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: being able to test a logical hypothesis by using abstract thought. Inductive reasoning: logical reasoning that begins with the specific and moves to the general. Deductive reasoning: logical reasoning that begins with the general and moves to the specific.

Answer 33

Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities. Piaget gave too little credit to the effects of learning. Piaget used his own children as research participants. Piaget only measured cognitive development during the early stages of the life span.

Answer 34

* Providing an understanding of the differences between the way children and adults learn has helped shaped education for children. * Child education tends to now be based on their cognitive developmental stages, therefore more suitably catering to their educational needs. A great deal of research (longitudinal/cross-section/cross cultural support) on cognitive development has since taken place, a large amount of which was inspired by Piaget’s findings. Fundamental aspects are still valid today

Answer 35

* Many of the stages outlined in the theory appear to occur much earlier than expected. * Over estimated people's formal operational abilities (some researchers believe that only ever 1/3 of the population actually reach that stage) * Theory is more of a description of the process not an explanation * Neglects cognitive factors that could have accounted for the individual differences in development that children show. i.e. memory span, memory, motivation, impulsiveness. * Overall underestimates the effect of social factors. * Unscientific method – lack of controls, small samples, absence of statistical analysis in his research. The sample of children Piaget used to develop the four stages of cognitive development were made up of his own three children, and the children of his colleague’s, all of whom were well educated professionals of high socioeconomic status. Results are therefore unable to be generalised to the population of children.

Answer 36

The ability to successfully search for an invisibly displaced object is frequently assumed to relate to the emergence of mental representation at around 2 years of age.

Answer 37

* Child is shown a model of mountain range consisting of one mountain topped with snow, one mountain with a hut on top and third mountain with a cross. * Child is encouraged to walk around model and look closely. * Experimenter places doll in various locations, for each location the child is shown ten pictures of various views and asked to select how the doll sees it. * If they are unable to see how the doll would see it, and select the picture which they see it from, then they are egocentric.

Answer 38

* CONSERVATION: Able to see that some properties of an object are maintained after it undergoes physical transformation. E.g., Mass and volume. * Conservation and centration are related. Child who focuses their full attention on one aspect of the situation, would be unable to see that changing the physical properties of an object does not alter its basic properties. How to Test it? * NUMBER: If you split number of objects into equal halves and make one pile look bigger – if they can tell you they are the same = conservation * LIQUID: Pour the same volume of liquid into different containers, if one ‘looks’ like there’s more, there must be more of that object, right? If they cannot tell they are the same volume do not have conservation. * MASS: Make two plasticine ball and ask if they have the same amount, then squish one. If the child can tell you they are the same they have conservation.

Answer 39

* Demonstrates whether the child has abstract thinking. * Task is to work out which of the following causes a pendulum to swing at different rates; the mass hanging from the string, the length of the strength, or the height at which the mass is released at. * When the child selects a dependent variable and can use abstract thinking to hypothesise what will occur when an alternative independent variables are systematically tested one at a time, they have used abstract logical thinking.

Answer 40

APPLICATION: Researchers DO NOT manipulate variables. METHOD: Observe/describe variables – note their relationship to one another Descriptive method E.g. observe preschool children in the playground to see if they select play partners of similar or different ethnic groups. Interviews, observational, case studies, correlation studies and archival research, focus groups are examples.

Answer 41

(i) May not be possible/ethical/feasible to randomly assign people to a variable (eg – cannot change age, cannot make people start smoking, etc.) (ii) Easier – measuring variables that already exist. (iii) Can be used to generate/pre-test/fine-tune a hypothesis (quite often used prior to experimental research). (iv) Higher in external validity.

Answer 42

Strengths Cost effective Can study past events Allow the basis for future studies Can be used if unethical to manipulate variables Limitations Researcher biased Cannot observe single variable

Answer 43

APPLICATION: Test whether change in one variable or group of variables have an affect on another variable (*CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP*) E.g. hours of sleep deprivation influence performance on a memory task Want to apply our findings to more than just the participants… population METHOD: CONTROLLED GROUP: a group that is controlled in the experiment that does not receive or experience the experimental condition. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP: (sometimes referred to as treatment group) : a group in a controlled experiment that experiences or receives the experimental condition.

Answer 44

Strength Able to identify conclusions and find cause and effect Limitation Time consuming No explanation of results.

Answer 45

Method: involves individuals observing groups or individuals in their natural environment Strength: can reduce extraneous variables of artificial enviroments Limitation: observer bias, observers see only what they want to see

Answer 46

Method: detailed study of a single person or group of people Strength: gives specific information about a particular phenomenon Limitations: time consuming - difficult to generalise to wider population

Answer 47

Method: looking for a relationship between two variable ( behavioural ) Strength: can determine strength and direction of research - can use multiple data collections Limitations: does not influence of variables on each other - time consuming - extraneous variable

Answer 48

Method: studying same participant over a period Strengths: shows development of participant Limitations: lose participants - time consuming - practice effect - expensive

Answer 49

Method: participants differ in age, but tested at the same point in time Strength: quick and easy Limitation: cohort effect ( does not look at changes in generations ) - doest study development differences

Answer 50

POPULATION: The entire group of people belonging to a particular category that is of research interest. A large group of people/ a whole set to whom the findings from a research study applies/from which we draw conclusions

Answer 51

A group of participants selected from, and a representative of, a population of research interest A subset of the population (should be representative of the population so results can be generalised/applied to the population).

Answer 52

SAMPLE Representativeness: How much the sample represents the population. Generalisability: How easily you can apply findings to the population. Probability: The selected participants represent the target population. Non-probability: Selected participants DO NOT represent the target population. Samples need to be random and representative. RANDOM = each member of the sample is chosen by chance. REPRESENTATIVE = accurately reflects the population - Using a sample is easier, less costly, and less time-consuming to analyse

Answer 53

Larger sample size more likely to be a representation of population Improves generality Will more likely find any relationship or effect that exists Small sample sizes impact accuracy and precision

Answer 54

A sampling technique used in selecting participants for a study, which involves selection of participants based on easy accessibility and availability e.g. family, friends, peers in class. APPLICATION: Used for pilot study or when you don’t need to consider other aspects in your research and anyone can follow instructions METHOD: Participants who are easy to access are chosen/invited

Answer 55

Strengths Easy to obtain quick requires little planning Limitations: : Sample likely to be biased and not an accurate representation of the population (may be different in age, gender).

Answer 56

APPLICATION: When researchers have troubles finding participants for their study METHOD: Participants recruit others to form a bigger sample.

Answer 57

Strengths Quick and easy to administer can be helpful when looking for specific traits Limitations May be biased lack of cooperation

Answer 58

A sampling technique used in selecting participants for a study, which ensures every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. APPLICATION: When populations are small METHOD: All the members of a population have an equal chance of being selected e.g. names in a hat, random number generator to approach people for the study

Answer 59

Strengths Easy to set up quick Inexpensive unbiased Limitations : Need to be able to contact the whole population large numbers needed as drop-out rates are high (not representative of pop)

Answer 60

A sampling technique used in selecting participants for a study, which involves breaking the population into strata, or groups, based on characteristics they share, and randomly selecting participants from each stratum in the same proportions that they appear in the population APPLICATION: Used in populations that have lots of differences that may yield different results e.g. religions, sex etc METHOD: Population is divided into strata and participants are randomly selected from each strata in the same ratio as in the population

Answer 61

Strengths Good representation of population Limitation Time consuming expensive detailed knowledge of the population

Answer 62

Participants are chosen for experimental and control groups purely by chance and have equal chance of being allocated to either group. Random allocation has two criteria – equal chance of being in two groups AND each participant is allocated INDEPENDENTLY of other participants Independent groups: require half the participants being allocated to the experimental and the other half allocated to the control group METHOD: flip a coin, pull ‘names’ out of a hat

Answer 63

Strengths can reduce bias Quick Easy Inexpensive minimise extraneous variables Limitation requires a large sample to eliminate participant variables may by chance be bias may (by chance) be bias – all females may be in one group

Answer 64

STRENGTHS: opinion-based – participants are completely unrestricted in their responses and can provide great insight into why they feel a particular way. (more detail + provides an explanation/able to understand reason behind it). LIMITATIONS: normally describing things that are hard to quantify, so statistical analysis and comparison is very difficult, time consuming, could get dishonest answers.

Answer 65

APPLICATION: Individual – face to face/digital and in real time, recorded for further analysis. Used to collect data about population opinions/ social issues Individual – it is the same as a questionnaire but not written down (these are cheaper, quicker, can involve a larger sample and can be done at a more convenient time)

Answer 66

- STRUCTURED: involves predetermined questions in a pre-set order with fixed wording. - SEMI-STRUCTURED: involves predetermined questions, but the order of asking them can be varied by the researcher. Wording of questions can be varied and explanations given if needed. - UNSTRUCTURED: involves a conversation around the researchers general area of interest. Informal and causal.

Answer 67

STRENGTH: - Detailed information about a topic, provides insight into an individual’s p.o.v (attitudes/beliefs etc..) - Cheaper LIMITATION: - Expensive & time consuming - Interviewer effect – a type of bias where a characteristic of the interviewer affects the responses given e.g., if they’re attractive, it may alter the participants behaviour or responses - Difficult to analyse

Answer 68

APPLICATION: Researcher asks a group of members their ideas, perceptions, opinions etc..

Answer 69

STRENGTH: - Promote ideas that might not have come up if interviewed individually, someone else might stimulate an idea for an individual - Detailed information - Peer-to-peer interaction LIMITATION: - Negative impact = social desirability bias, might feel the need to give a socially accepted answer. - Dominate individuals may take over. - Participants might be reluctant to answer.

Answer 70

APPLICATION: Series of questions to gather information about a participant’s p.o.v, their attitudes, beliefs or understandings about a topic As its open ended, it enables a broad, detailed response to be provided Survey can be a questionnaire: written response to pre-determined questions

Answer 71

STRENGTH: - Limited bias, can source data from a large sample, quicker & easier than an interview, participants can complete it when convenient - Flexible, detailed information provided, clarification can be sought by both parties - LIMITATION: - Literacy requirements, misinterpretation may occur an interview: verbal questioning that may have some pre-determined topics and ad-hoc questions or points for discussion - Expensive, time consuming and may become subjective as they are ‘on the spot’ questions

Answer 72

APPLICATION: Any information that is recorded/observed that IS NUMERICAL (i.e. – numbers or categories) - Find casual relationship - Samples are usually larger STRENGTHS: can be STATISTICALLY ANALYSED READILY MEASURED and COMPARED with other data. Time efficient in both collection and analysis of results LIMITATIONS: restricts participants from providing explanations and elaborations to responses.

Answer 73

SUBJECTIVE: APPLICATION * Collected through OBSERVATION or SELF-REPORTING of behaviour. Information is collected numerically using FIXED response questionnaires. STRENGTHS: NUMERICAL STATISTICALLY ANALYSED LIMITATION: * Often BIASED – opinions and attitudes (relies on honesty).

Answer 74

STRENGTH: able to understand both the strength and direction of the person’s opinion LIMITATIONS: we are not given reasons behind the answer given (no explanation) SUBJECTIVE: CHECKLIST Are lists created to aid memory and are usually easy-to-read.

Answer 75

STRENGTHS: Can be used quantitatively by stating number/percentages of individuals who ticked all the boxes/ number of people who ticked yes Therefore this can be measured statistically LIMITATIONS: Requires honest answers from individuals Researcher bias and error if observations are used for the checklist

Answer 76

STRENGTHS: * EASILY MEASURED and COMPARED with other data. * MINIMISES bias. (Participants cannot lie) LIMITATION: * DOES NOT PROVIDE REASONING behind responses * Costly

Answer 77

APPLICATION: Changes in electrical conductivity of the skin. Is measured by attaching electrodes to hair-free parts of the body such as fingers or palms. If we sweat and our skin is wet, an electrical current passes more easily than if our skin is dry. STRENGTH: Occurs when we are feeling anxious, fearful or excited (arousal system is active) LIMITATIONS: However, it cannot indicate which emotion has resulted in our arousal, so needs to be used with other measures to provide information about our states of consciousness. GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE Objective – physiological responses “BRAIN-WAVES”

Answer 78

o used to record data in an organised way o usually the IV is on the LHS and the DV is on the RHS or the group is on the LHS and the frequency is on the RHS (must have a total at the bottom) o Requires a descriptive title

Answer 79

o o used to represent data visually so trends and relationships are evident o D-TAILS to ensure you address all criteria D-TAILS D: Data covers MOST of the grid T: Title (IV and DV) A: Axes I: Intervals- consistent spacing L: Label units after axes name using () S: Scales should be even or easy to interpret

Answer 80

- Represent large amounts of information clearly and efficiently - Represent quantitative data in a summary format - Do not show raw scores, but show descriptive statistics (central tendency, percentages) - Descriptive statistics are used to summarise, organise and describe data obtained from research

Answer 81

- A simple way of organising data (especially if you have a large amount) - Categories being compared are placed in one column on the table (if there are a several different categories, then put them into groups or class intervals) - Count how many times a piece of data fits into each interval (referred to as frequency)

Answer 82

- Type of data that can be made from the type of data on a frequency distribution table. - Horizontal axis (x) : class distribution/the score or thing being measured. Continuous data on X axis - Vertical axis (y): frequency - Each bar touches the next because it is continuous data (ie real values exist between each data point)

Answer 83

- Also known as scatter graph and scatter gram - Represents correlation - A single point on the graph represents one participant’s scores on two variables and the position of the data provides information on both variables - Interpret Pearson’s correlation coefficient as a measure of strength and direction of linear relationships - Correlation is strength of relationship between two different variables - Correlation can range from -1 to +1 - Can be described in terms of their strength and direction - Correlation does not imply cause - Strong Positive correlation: As X increases, Y also increases - Strong Negative correlation: As X increases, Y decreases

Answer 84

- Continuous data on the X axis with dots plotted at each point - Any single line that connects points that relate one variable to another - Do not necessarily start and end at zero - Can see a trend in the data - Want to see the line, not the dots. Make them crosses to make data more accurate and don’t have FAT dots as they make your data inaccurate

Answer 85

- Commonly used to measure where all scores in data are added together and then divided by total pieces of data. - Represents average score in data set - Strengths: uses all data and is most accurate - Limitation: can be greatly influenced by very large or very small score (known as an outlier) - Outlier skew representation of data

Answer 86

- Middle number in a set of data - Calculate by arranging all data from smallest to largest and then select data in the middle. - Even number pieces of data: add the two pieces of data and divide by 2 (ie find the mean of the two pieces of data) - Strengths: Not affected by outliers in the data set, good to use for skewed data - Limitations: May not be representative of small data sets

Answer 87

the extent to which one would get the same result if the same measure were to be given to the same person again under the same circumstances. Ensure: same experimental conditions, same location, same measurement procedure, same measuring instrument. High reliability (repeatability) can indicate a low level of systematic errors.

Answer 88

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY – within a test, different questions or activities measuring the same construct (a mental construction, derived from the general scientific process: observing natural phenomena, inferring the common features of those observations, and constructing a label for the observed commonality or the underlying cause of the commonality eg Likert scale). TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY – comparing how people performed on a test at one time with how they performed on it sometime later

Answer 89

VALIDITY: the extent to which the results of a study reflect what the measurement instrument says it is measuring.

Answer 90

FACE VALIDITY: Does the test appear to be measuring what it claims? E.g. a test on intelligence and has sporting questions – we would question its face validity. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY: examine whether the test items are in keeping with the constructs on which the test was based. E.g. personality test (made up of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) should not have items that are not part of its theory VALIDITY CONCURRENT VALIDITY: compare peoples performance on the scale we are interested in with their performance on one that we already know a lot about, and look at the strength of the relationship between them. E.g. using a previous IQ test to help develop a new IQ test. PREDICTIVE VALIDITY: the extent to which we can predict other attributes or behaviours thought to be related to the constructs tested. E.g. an employer looking for someone who is dependable would put a question in that relates to screen for that particular person. Might add in conscientiousness because they know it correlates.

Answer 91

INTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between two variables; eg - a treatment and an outcome. . - eliminate alternative explanations for a finding. - Internal validity depends largely on the procedures of a study and how rigorously it is performed. - Lack of internal validity means no conclusions can be drawn. -

Answer 92

EXTERNAL VALIDITY refers to how well the outcome of a study can be expected to apply to other settings. Lack of external validity means findings cannot be applied to individuals who are different from your investigation population. - how generalizable the findings are. For instance, do the findings apply to other people, settings, situations, and time periods? While rigorous research methods can ensure internal validity, external validity, on the other hand, may be limited by these methods.

Answer 93

- Summary of your findings for the investigation. - Restate your hypothesis/inquiry question and whether your hypothesis/inquiry question is SUPPORTED or NOT SUPPORTED. - You cannot “PROVE” or say your hypothesis is “CORRECT”. - This is incorrect psychological terminology. - You should also address previous research that has been completed that supports your hypothesis AND what your investigation results are.

Answer 94

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS INCLUDE: - Observational mistakes (researcher incorrectly records a “catch” as successful even if ball bounces first). - Poor calibration or a faulty instrument (e.g. stopwatch has low battery). - Environmental factors (researcher conducts their investigation with participants looking into the sun which makes it difficult to see).

Answer 95

RANDOM ERRORS INCLUDE: - A limitation of in the instrument (the stop button on the stopwatch is faulty and sometimes gets a bit stuck). - A limitation of the environment (experiment completed outside and there is a sudden gust of wind). - A slight variation in procedures (researcher gives participants slightly different instructions). Limitations include: - sample size, equipment availability, procedures, systematic errors and random errors. - How will you then improve these limitations. E.g. increase the sample size, use more advanced equipment

Answer 96

- Evaluate all ethical considerations addressed prior to the commencement of the investigation. Identify these and how they were upheld throughout the investigation. - Address whether a debrief has taken place after the investigation. - Any unforeseen risk? - If any ethical considerations were not met. Explain these.

Answer 97

- informed consent - debrief - protection of participants - deception - confidentiality - withdrawal

Answer 98

improvement in language comprehension - comprehend abstract language such a similies Vocab continues to increase

Answer 99

at 12: better regulating their emotions ( brain plasticity the development of the amygdala ) - increase rates of stress/fear - react more emotionally - increase self concept

Answer 100

- motor skills operate at their best - good control over fine motor movements - physical development at its prime

Answer 101

- improvement in knowledge of words and their meaning - verbal flueny starts to decline after age 35

Answer 102

intimate relationship tend to form in mid 20's to late 20's ( close friends or romantic ) - dependence of family decreases

Answer 103

- difficult to learn and maintain new skills - motor skills is difficult

Answer 104

tip of the tongue phenomenon increases with age - verbal fluency continues to decline tip of the tongue phenomenon: an individual knows what they would like to say but are unable to recall the specific word required

Answer 105

decrease in negative emotions and increase in positive may experience a mid life crisis where they feel to be more youthful , alone or socialise 51 is the average age women start menopause

Answer 106

-control over fine motor movements decline - gross motor movements are performed slower - complex motor task take more brain activity then they used to

Answer 107

Tip of the tongue phenomenon increase - speed of language processing declines - difficult with language production - verbal fluency declines

Answer 108

small and tighter social networks - greater emotions regulations of emotions - becomes more dependent on others therefore feels shame , depressed and guilty due to dependency - maintaining social active life increases feeling of self-worth and self-esteem

Answer 109

LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY: is the study of continuity and change throughout the lifespan.

Answer 110

Physical ( Fine and Gross motor skills ) Cognitive ( Language ) Social Emotional

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Lifespan and Science Inquiry Flashcards

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