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Exam Revision SEM 1/ Test Revision TERM 2 > Human Biology: Body Systems > Flashcards

Human Biology: Body Systems Flashcards

1
Q

Function: Lymphatic System

A
  1. Return excess fluid from tissues to the blood
  2. Remove bacteria and foreign particles
  3. Assist in immune responses
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2
Q

What are body fluids ( 2) ?

A
  • Intracellular fluid - fluid inside the cell
  • Extracellular fluid - fluid outside the cell
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3
Q

Where are body fluids ?

A

– Found in 2 places
* Microscopic spaces between cells filled with fluid - tissue fluid (or intercellular fluid)
* Plasma

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4
Q

Exchange of material ?

A
  • Movement of substances:
    – Diffusion
    – Fluid movement - high pressure at arterial end forces substances across capillary wall into cells
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5
Q

What is lymph?

A
  • Lymph - fluid in lymphatic system
  • Tissue fluid is also known as intercellular fluid or interstitial fluid or lymph (once in the lymphatic system)
  • Flow is slow because there is no pump
  • Skeletal muscles move lymph (like veins)
  • Valves in vessels to stop backflow
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6
Q

What are lymph vessels?

A
  • Originate as lymph capillaries
  • Capillaries unite to form larger vessels
    – Resemble veins in structure with valves
    – Connect to lymph nodes
  • Lymphatic vessels deliver lymph into 2 main channels:
    – Right lymphatic duct (1/4 of body)
  • Drains right side of head & neck, right arm, right thorax
  • Drains into the right subclavian vein
    – Thoracic duct (3/4 of body)
  • Drains the rest of the body
  • Drains into the left subclavian vein
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7
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A
  • Begin in the tissues as blind-ended tubes
  • Lymph does not circulate like blood
  • Lymph capillaries occur in most parts of the body except brain & spinal cord
  • Larger than blood capillaries
  • More permeable
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8
Q

Lymph Nodes

A
  • Found in clusters
  • Groin, armpits, throat, thorax and arms
  • Filter the lymph
  • Provide biological filtration
  • Can be sites of cancer growth
  • “I have swollen glands!”
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9
Q

Definition: Digestive System

A
  • Def :the supply of nutrients in a form that can be used in cells is facilitated by the structure and function of the digestive system at the cell, tissue and organ levels
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10
Q

Major Parts of Digestive System:

A
  • Oral cavity/ mouth
  • Oesophagus
  • Pancreases
  • Stomach
  • Stomach
  • Liver/ gall bladder
  • Small intestine/ villi
  • Large intestine
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11
Q

Enzyme and Digestion:

A
  • Crucial to help aid and speed up chemical reactions within the body without being used ijn the process
  • Required for proper digestive system to function
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12
Q

Amylase:

A

Acts on: Carbohyrates
End Product: simple sugars ( eg glucose )

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13
Q

Lipase

A

Acts on: Lipid
End Product: fatty acids

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14
Q

Protease

A

Acts On: Protein
End Product: Amino Acids

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15
Q

Six Basic Activities in Digestive

A

. Ingestion of food & water
2. Mechanical digestion of food
3. Chemical digestion of food
4. Movement of food along alimentary canal
5. Absorption of digested food & water into the blood and lymph
6. Elimination of material that is not absorbed Alimentary canal: continuous tube that runs from mouth to anus.

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16
Q

What is mechanical digestion?

A

Mechanical Digestion is the physical breakdown of food particles

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17
Q

Mechanical Digestion: How ?

A

 The teeth cut, tear and grind the food ( 32 teeth in human mouth )
 Churning actions in the stomach break the food further down
 The gall bladders releases bile into the small intestine. Bile salts act as emulsifying agents, breaking fat down into smaller droplet.
 Incisors: help to cut that does not require significant jaw
 The canine: helps to tear meat off bones or cut through tough material that the incirsors may not able to handle
 The premolars and molars: help in grinding ingested food

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18
Q

Mechanical Digestion: the aim

A
  • Is to break down the food into small pieces so that the total surface area.
  • This allows for more effective chemical digestions so the chemicals can access more of the food
  • 32 teeth which have four different kind: incisors , canine, premolar and molar
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19
Q

What is chemical Digestion?

A

: is chemical breaking down large, complex molecules into smaller , spichers molecules. These smaller molecules are then small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

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20
Q

Chemical Digestion: Breakdown of Enzyme

A
  • Amylase -> Carbohydrates: split into monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose and galactose
  • Protease -> Proteins are split into peptides and amino acids
  • Lipase - > Lipids are split into fatty acids and glycerol
  • Nucleic acids are split into nucleotides
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21
Q

Swallowing:

A
  • Tongue and chewing actions rolls food into bolus and needs to swallowed
  • Close the nasal cavity, moves up towards epiglottis which stops food from entering trachea, food squeezed back to oesophagus
  • Peristalsis: waves of muscle contraction: 4 layers ( inner mucosa, submucosa,, circular & longitudinal muscle , serosa
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22
Q

Salivary Gland:

A

Salivary Glands: food is chewed with saliva which is a fluid that is secreted into the mouth cavity by three pairs of salivary glands. ( parotid gland, submandibular and sublingual gland )
- It contains mucus to lubricate the food and a digestive enzyme- salivary amylase which begins the chemical digestions of starch into disaccharide maltose.

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23
Q

Stomach: Structure

A
  • large muscular, j-shape
  • heavy meals stay for 3-4 hours
  • Mechanical digestions ( continues here due to 3 layers ) ( circular, longitudinal , oblique )
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24
Q

Stomach Lining:

A
  • mucosa is in longitudinal folds ( rugae )
  • When food present the folds flatten
  • Mucosa specialised to secrete gastric juices
  • Gastric juices secreted by gastic glands located in gastric pits
  • Gastric juices contain HCL , mucous and enzymes
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25
Q

Chemical Digestion: Stomach

A

Pepsin ( gastric protease ) breaks down proteins
- Secreted in an inactive form- pepsinogen
- Inactive so it does not digest the stomach itself
- Mucous lining stops digestion of the stomach

26
Q

HCL kills bacteria in food: stomach

A
  • Rennin- in the stomachs of infants
  • Coagulates milk protein so that it stays in the stomach longer for digestion
27
Q

Pyloric Sphincter

A

controls movement of food from stomach in duodenum of the small intestine ( acts like a value )

28
Q

Small Intestine:

A

These products of digestion along with substances such as vitamins, mineral and water, are then absorbed through the walls of the small intestine into the blood. This is done through internal surface of the small intestine so efficient absorption requires a large surface area.

29
Q

Small Intestine: Large Surface Area

A
  • is very long 6-7m
  • inner lining contains mucosa which has folds that extended into the interior of the small intestine
  • Consist of duodenum ( main site of chemical digestion ) , jejunum and ileum
30
Q

The Villi:

A

3 modifications of lining of SI:
- Folded
- Smaller finger like projection called villi
- Villi have microvilli
Increase the internal SA so that more nutrient absorptions can occur
Absorbed nutrients are then sent to the to bloodstream

31
Q

Large Intestine:

A
  • Is larger in diameter than the small intestines which is made of the caecum, colon ,rectum and anus.
  • No enzymes secreted
  • Glandular cells secrete a lot of mucous
  • Movement of material is slow
  • Most of the water is absorbed
  • Carbohydrates, proteins and AA is broken down further to release of CO2, methane and hydrogen sulfide
  • Mineral and vitamin also absorbed
  • There is no villi in the larger intestine
  • The remaining water in absorbed so the content is more solid
  • Bacteria in the large intestine break down much of remaining organic compounds.
32
Q

Pancreas:

A
  • Between the stomach & duodenum
  • Digestive that has enzyme ( including amylase ) that break down carbohydrates and ( lipase ) which break down fats and protein
  • The pancreas deliver the digestive juice to the small intestine though small tubes called ducts
33
Q

What is Digestive Juices:

A

Digestive Juice: as it broken down chemical by a variety of digestive juices secreted by organs of the digestive system

34
Q

Types of Digestive Juices:

A

Gastric Juice: produced by glands in the stomach lining digest food in chyme
Bile: contains bile salts that emulsify fats
Pancreatic Juice: contains enzymes and ions that aid digestion in the small intestines and buffer that neutralize stomach acids.

35
Q

Liver

A
  • Makes digestive juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins
  • Bile ducts carry bile from your liver to your gall bladder for storage for the small intestines to use.
36
Q

Gallbladder

A
  • Stores bile between meals as you eat , your gallbladder squeezes through the bile into your small intestines
  • It makes poo brown
37
Q

what is elimination:

A

Elimination is the elimate an foreign object without digesting any of the nutrients. Excrection is the absorbing the nutrients then excrete the waste

38
Q

what is faeces?

A

contains water m undigested food materials, bacteria, bile pigments and the remains of cells that have broken away from the internal lining of the alimentary canal.

39
Q

Processes of Elimination:

A
  1. The colon is the longest park of the large intestine which have inverted U shape
  2. The caecum is a pouch about 6cm long where the small intestine joins the large intestine.
  3. The appendix is small tube attached to caecum
  4. The rectum is the last park of the large intestine. As the walls of the rectum stretch, they trigger a response known as defecation. The muscle around the anus relaxes and the faeces can be passed through.
  5. The anus is the external opening at the end of the rectum. The faeces is expelled out.
40
Q

What types of elimination

A
  • Carbon dioxide is made from respiration.
  • Excess proteins or amino acids are broken down to produce a nitrogen waste called urea.
  • Heat is constantly made by respiration.
  • Water is made from respiration
41
Q

What is excretion:

A

Excretion: all the chemical processes in the body produce by-products, some of which can be used by the body, while others are wastes. Most of the wastes are toxic and would be harmful if allowed to accumulate
Excretion: the removal of metabolic wastes

42
Q

Lung:

A

The lungs: are involved in the excretion of the carbon dioxide that is produced by all body cells during cellular respiration. The removal of carbon dioxide by the lungs was discussed in chapter 4

43
Q

The liver:

A

The liver has an important role in processing many substance so that they can be excreted
- Detoxifies alcohol and many other drugs
- Deactivates many hormones and coverts them into a form that can be excreted by the kidneys
- Breaks down haemoglobin from dead red blood cells to produce bile pigment, which are then passed out of the body with the faeces
* Important role in processing many substances so that they can be excreted.
* Prepares materials for excretion
* Proteins make up the structural materials of the cell.
* Little protein is used in energy-releasing reactions.
* Excess protein cannot be stored in cells so needs to be removed.
* This protein is broken down into amino acids.
- To do this the amino group (NH2) must be removed from the amino acids – this is called DEAMINATION

44
Q

Sweat Glands

A

Sweat glands: in the skin secrete sweat, which is largely water, for cooling. Sweat contains by-products of metabolism such as salt, urea and lactic acid

45
Q

The Alimentary Canal

A

The alimentary canal passes out bile pigments, which enter the small intestines with the bile. These pigments are the breakdown products of haemoglobin from red blood cells

46
Q

The kidney

A

The kidney: are the principal excretory organs. They are responsible for maintaining the constant concentration of material in the body fluids. The most toxic waste removed by the kidneys are nitrogenous waste urea, uric acids and creatinine. Urease is produced in the liver from the breakdown of amino acid, which come form protein metabolism.

47
Q

Deanination

A

The proteins which have been build up from amino acids become constituents of cells structures, enzymes, antibodies and man glandular secretions
- if other energy sources have been used up then the body is able to metabolize large amounts of protein breaking them down to produce energy ( deamination )
- To make use of proteins as an energy source, the amino group (NH2) must be removed through a process called deamination
- This occurs in the liver via the aid of enzymes
- Once the amino group is removed, it is converted to ammonia (NH3) and then to urea which is excreted from the body in urine.
- The remaining part of the amino acid (mainly carbon and hydrogen) is converted into a carbohydrate which can be used to release energy
-
amino acid + oxygen -> ( enzymes ) carbhydrates +ammonia

  • Ammonia is highly soluble in water and highly toxic
  • One thousandth of a mg in 1L of blood is enough to kill a person
  • Ammonia gets converted to urea (less harmful)
    energy + carbon dioxide +ammonia -> urea and water
48
Q

Glomerular Filtration

A

Glomerular Filtration
- This process takes place in the renal corpuscle when fluid is forced out of the blood and is collected by the glomerular capsule.
Driver= Glomerulus

Takes place in the renal corpuscle when fluid is forced out of the blood and collected by the glomerular capsule. (Basically separate the liquid part of your blood (plasma), which contains all your dissolved solutes)
Blood that is about to be filtered enters a glomerulus, which is nestled inside a glomerulus capsule or Bowmans capsule.

This process is very enhanced due to the high pressure of the blood.
Afferent arteriole leading in to the glomerulus has a wide diameter then the efferent arteriole leaving it. (Afferent arterioles deliver blood to the glomerulus, while efferent arterioles carry it away)
This narrowing of the efferent arteriole increases resistance to the flow of blood & produces higher pressure in the glomerulus.

Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through the glomerulus and through the capillary walls and pores of the glomerular capsule and into the RENAL TUBE (PCT)

WATER + SALTS + NUTRIENTS + AMINO ACIDS + FATTY ACIDS + GLUCOSE + UREA + HORMONES ETC (Basically anything small found in the blood plasma other than RBC, WBC and Plasma Proteins)
= GLOMERULAR FILTRATE (only about 1% of this leaves body as urine)

49
Q

what is reabsorption?

A

. Next step is Selective Reabsorption where molecules and ions are both passively and actively reabsorbed back into the blood.

Driver- Cells of the Renal Tubule: (PCT & Loop of Henle)
Materials that are reabsorbed include: water, glucose, and amino acids. Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium and bicarbonate are also reabsorbed.

Amino acids and Glucose also return to the blood at the PCT
Most water is reabsorbed at the PCT via passive diffusion, the remaining water (together with the dissolved salts and urea) passes from the PCT into the descending limb of Henle. It then passes along the Loop of Henle, and up the ascending limb of Henle.
A large surface area is required for effective reabsorption of materials, which is achieved by the long length of the tubule ( 2 sets of convolutions and the long loop of Henle)
Much water reabsorption is regulated based on the body’s requirements. This is an active process, under hormonal control (Anti-diuretic hormone) and is referred to as Facultative Reabsorption.

The filtrate that enters the proximal convoluted tubule is divided into two portions: components that are reabsorbed from the tubule into the blood, and components that are not reabsorbed and continue to pass through the nephron to be further processed into urine…… these include:
Some water, nitrogenous wastes and excess salt ions

50
Q

What is secretion?

A

Secretion
Even after filtration has occured, the tubules continue to secrete additional substances into the tubular fluid. This enhances the kidney’s ability to eliminate certain wastes and toxins. It is also essential to regulation of plasma potassium concentrations and pH. (See Fluid and electrolyte balance).

51
Q

What is excretion?

A

Excretion is what goes into the urine, the end result of the above three processes. Although the original concentration of a substance in the tubule fluid may initially be close to that of plasma, subsequent reabsorption and/or secretion can dramatically alter the final concentration in the urine.
The amount of a particular substance that is excreted is determined by the formula:
amount excreted = amount filtered - amount reabsorbed + amount secreted

52
Q

what is segmentation?

A
  • Food is mixed with enzymes by the process of
    segmentation
53
Q

Structures of Nephron

A

Renal corpuscle:
Glomerulus: knot of blood capillaries
Bowman’s capsule

Renal tubule:
Proximal convoluted tubule
Descending limb of loop of Henle
Ascending limb of loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct

54
Q

Tubular Secretion: Selective Reabsorption

A

Selective reabsorption- removes substances from the filtrate and returns them to the blood
Tubular secretion- ADDS materials to the filtrate from the blood.
These materials include, potassium, hydrogen ions, creatinine and particular drugs (eg penicillin).
Can be active or passive process.
Occurs in the Distal convoluted tubule primarily
Collecting duct is the final portion of this process, where the filtrate empties into the renal pelvis from the medulla.

55
Q

FLOW OF GLOMERULAR FILTRATE

A

Glomerulus -> Bowman’s space in Bowman’s capsule-> proximal convoluted tubule -> descending limbs of henle’s loop -> ascending limb of Henle’s loop -> distal convoluted tubule ->collecting duct -> renal pelvis

56
Q

Elimination of Urine

A

Urine passes through the collecting ducts to the renal pelvis
It then drains into the ureters and is pushed by waves of muscular contractions to the urinary bladder where it is stored.
To the urethra and out of the body

57
Q

Composition of Urine

A

Water= 96%
Urea= 2.0%
Various ions= 1.5%
Other= 0.5%

Copy table 10.2 page 130 on Composition of filtrate, reabsorbed substances and Urine.

58
Q

summary of the filtration system

A

Blood arrives from the renal artery.
Blood enters a ball of capillaries called Glomerulus.
Theses capillaries sit in a filter called the Bowman’s or renal capsule.
Small molecules leave the capillary and enter the capsule – glucose, amino acids, salts, urea and water.
The filtered blood moves down the nephron.
In the convoluted tubule cells reabsorb the good stuff – glucose, amino acids, most salt and water.
The rest – water and urea – moves on through the nephron.
As the urine moves on more water is saved in the loop of Henle and collecting duct
This adjusts water loss to suit the level of water in the body.

59
Q

what are the parts of excretory system ?

A
  • kidney
  • ureter
    -bladder
    -urethra
60
Q

why is the excretory system important ?

A

-helps maintain homeostasis ( correct temp)
- osmoregulation ( which helps the body get rid of the wastes inside the body )

Exam Revision SEM 1/ Test Revision TERM 2 (12 decks)

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