Life Science Flashcards
Inanimate
nonliving things
Animate
Living things
List of the most commonly found elements in the molecules of animate beings..
oxygen, carbon,sodium,magnesium,iodin,sulfur,potassium,
chhorine,nitrogen,calcium,phosphorous,iron,
hydrogen
what is another way to describe living and nonliving things
Organic (living)
inorganic(nonliving)
Organic molecules
are from living organisms
Organic molecules contain what?
carbon-hydrogen bonds
Inorganic Molecules
come from non-living resources
4 major classes or organic molecules are?
carbohydrate
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
consist of only hydrogen,oxygen, and carbon atoms.
What are the most abundant single class of organic substances found in nature?
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate molecules provide many basic necessities such as?
fiber, vitamins, and minerals
Our bodies break down carbohydrates to make what?
glucose
Glucose
a sugar used to produce that energy which our bodies need in order to operate.
BRAIN CELLS ARE EXCLUSIVELY DEPENDENT UPON A CONSTANT SOURCE OF GLUCOSE MOLECULES.
what are the two types of carbohydrates?
simple and complex
simple carbohydrates:
can be absorbed directly through the cell, and therefore enter the blood stream very quickly. We consume simple carbohydrates in dairy products, fruit, and other sugary foods.
complex carbohydrates
consist of a chain of simple sugars which, over time, our bodies break down into simple sugars (which are also referred to as stored energy) complex carbs come from starches like cereal, bread,beans,potatoes, and starchy vegetables
Glycogen
is the storage form of glucose in human and animal cells.
Lipids
commonly known as fats,
lipids are molecules with two functions:
- they are stored as an energy reserve
2. they provide a protective cushion for vital organs
Lipids also combine with other molecules to form essential compounds? What?
Phospholipids- which form the membrane around cells.
Lipids also combine with other molecules to create naturally-occurring what?
Steroid hormones, like the hormones estrogen and testosterone.
Proteins
large molecules which are bodies’ cells need in order to function properly
amino acids
are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. also aid in maintaining and creating many aspects of our cells. Cellular structure, function and regulation, to name a few.
What also work as neurotransmitters and carriers of oxygen in the blood(hemoglobin)
protein
Nucleic acids
large molecules made up of smaller molecules called nucleotides DNA .
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
transports and transmits genetic information. DNA is nucleic acid. considered the basis of reproduction and progression.
Metabolism
the body”s physical and chemical processes of converting or using energy.
Energy is processed in plants and animals through what process?
photosynthesis for plants
respiration for animals
Cellular respiration
produces the actual energy molecules known as ATP (adenosine-tri-phophate) molecules.
When do plants use ATP?
During photosynthesis for production glucose
Photosynthesis
plants, as well as some protists and monerans can use light energy to bind together small molecules from the enviornment.
photosynthesis equation
CO2 + H20 —> LIGHT C6H12O6 + O2
carbon dioxide + water (light) Glucose + oxygen
In order for photosynthesis to occur, plants require a specific molecule to capture sunlight. what is this molecule called?
Chlorophyll
What light does Chlorophyll absorb?
it absorbs red and blue light, but not green. green light is reflected off of plants, which is why plants appear green to us.
What is important about chlorophyll?
It is important to note that chlorophyll is absolutely necessary to the photosynthesis process in plants
if it photosynthesis then it’ll have chlorophyll!
Respiration
is the metabolic opposite of photsynthesis
What are the two types of respiration?
Aerobic— which uses oxygen
anaerobic— occurs without the use of oxygen
Aerobic respiration
is the reaction which uses enzymes to combine oxygen with organic matter (food). This yields carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Respiration equation
C6H1206 + 6O2 ENZYMES–> 7 6CO2 + 6H20 + ENERGY
Anaerobic respiration
is respiration that occurs WITHOUT the use of oxygen. It produces less energy than aerobic respiration produces, yielding only two molecules of ATP per glucose molecule.
How many ATP does aerobic respiration produce per glucose molecule
38 ATP
plants convert energy into matter and release oxygen gas– animals then absorb this oxygen gas in order to run their own metabolic reaction and in the process, release carbon dioxide. That carbon dioxide is then absorbed by plants in the photosynthetic conversion of energy into matter.
EVERYTHING COMES FULL CIRCLE! What is this called?
metabolic cycle.
Kingdoms
scientist have organized life into 5 large groups called kingdoms
What are the 5 kingdom groups?
animalia, plantae,fungi, protista,monera
Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom conations multicellular organisms, or those known as complex organisms.
Heterotrophs
means that they must eat preexisting organic matter(either plants or animals) in order to sustain themselves.
Heterotrophs that only eat plants are called what?
herbivors
Carnivores
those that kill and eat other animals for food
omnivores
those that eat both plants and animals
Kingdom Plantae
contains all plant based life.
Chloroplasts
specialized cellular structures that capture sunlight energy.
Most plants are referred to as what ?
autotrophs (self feeders) meaning they convert their food from sunlight to energy
except for algae, most plants are divided into one of two groups. what are the groups?
vascular plants- (most crops, trees, and flowering plants--have specialized tissue that allows them to transport water and nutrients through their roots. nonvascular plants (mosses) can not transport water like vascular plants and are mostly found in swamps due to this.
Fungi
contains organisms that share some similarities with plants, but also have other characteristics that make them more animal like.
They can not perform photosynthesis so they are heterotrophs
The bodies of fungi are made of filaments called?
Hyphae
Hyphae in turn creat the tissue what?
mycelium
What are some well known fungi?
mushrooms, yeasts, and molds.
Protista
includes single-celled organisms that contain a nucleus as part of their structure. considered a simple cell
these include: paramecium, amoeba,and slim molds.
most Protista move around how?
they often move around by cilia or flagellums
Monera
contains only bacteria.. can sometimes transmit genetic information using a small structure called plasmids
Kingdoms, descriptions, examples
Animalia- multicelled;parasites;prey;consumers; can be herbivorous,carnivorous,or omnivorous examples are: sponges,worms,insects,fish,mammals,reptiles, birds, and humans.
Plantae- Multi-celled;autotrophs;mostly produces examples are: ferns, angiosperms gymnosperms; mosses
Fungi– can be single or multi celled;decomposers;parasites;absorb food;asexual consumers examples: mushrooms, mildew, molds, yeast
Protista– single or multi celled absorb food both producers and consumers examples are plankton,algae, amoeba, protozoans
Monera– single celled or a colony of single cells decomposers and parasites move in water are both producers and consumers example are bacteria and blue-green alage.
Orders of classification:
kingdom: insect,bird,fish, pig, dog, bear
phylum: fish bird,pig dog,bear
class: pig,dog,bear
family: panda,brown, grizzly
Genus: brown,grizzly
species: grizzly
around the cell is called what?
cell membrane which separates the living cell from the rest of the environment and regulates the comings and going of molecules within the cell.
cell membrane is considered what?
semipermeable– this is because it allows some molecules in while it denies others.
Which have cell walls? plants or animals?
Plants have cell walls which is necessary for structure support and protection. Animal cells do not contain a cell wall.
Cells are filled with what gel like substance?
protoplasm
Protoplasm contains various structures called what?
organelles: they are called this because they act like small organs
plant cells have what?
nucleus( surrounded by nuclear membrane) Microtubules( tiny bubbles) Cell wall (rigid) Rough ER (studded with ribosomes) Smooth ER(no attached ribosomes) Chlorplast(filled with chlorophyll) Golgi body, Central Vacuole, Microfliaments(tiny threads) Mictochondrion
Animal Cell
microfilaments( tiny threads) mitochondrion,nucleus (surrounded by nuclear membrane), Rough ER(studded with ribosomes), smooth ER(no attached ribosomes) Golgi body, plasma (cell membrane) Microtubles(tiny tubes) Lysosome(breakdown body)
Mitochondria
spherical or rod-shaped organelles, which carry out the reactions of aerobic respiration. They are the power generators of both plant and animal cells, because they convert oxygen and nutrients into ATP, the chemical energy that powers the cell’s metabolic activitites.
Ribosomes
are extremely tiny spheres that make proteins. These proteins are used either as enzymes or as support for other cell functions.
Golgi Apparatus
is essential to the production of polysaccharides (carohydrates), and made up of a layered stack of flattened sacs.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
in important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins. it is a complex system of internal membrans, and is called either rough(when ribosomes are attached), or smooth( no ribosomes)
Chloroplasts
are only found in plants. they contain the chlorophyll molecule necessary for photosynthesis.
Nucleus
controls all of the cell’s functions, and contains the all important genetic information, or DNA of a cell.
what are the four types of tissues
epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
Epithelial tissue
made up groups of flattened cells which are grouped tightly together to form a solid surface. those cells are arranged in one or many layers to form an external or internal covering of the body or organs.
connective tissue
is made of cells which are surrounded by non-cellular material. for example bones contain some cells, but they are also surrounded by a considerable amount of non-cellular, extracellular material.
muscular tissue
3 types:
cardiac tissue, found in the heart
smooth tissue, located in the walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder
skeletal or striated tisuue, found in the muscles.
Nervous tissue
consists of cells called neurons; Neurons specialize in making many connections with and transmitting electrical impulses to each other. The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are all made of nervous tissue.
The Heart
made of cardiac muscle and conjunctive tissue (conjunctive tissue makes up the valves),the heart pumps blood first to the lungs in order to pick up oxygen, then through the rest of the body to deliver the oxygen, and finally back to the lungs to start again.
Roots
a tree’s are covered by an epidermis which is in turn made up of a protective tissue. They are also composed of tissue, which allows them to grow. the root organ also contains conductive tissue to absorb and transport water and nutrients to the rest of the plant.
Inheritable characteristics are transmitted through what?
Genes and chromosomes
Nitrogenous bases: what are the four types?
Adenine A
Thymine T
Guanine G
Cytosine C
How are Nitrogenous bases linked together?
A always pairs with T
C always pairs with G
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
Alleles
alternate forms of the same gene are called alleles
When alleles are different, the individual is called what?
heterozygous
Dominant
When genes exist in a heterozygous pairing, usually one is expressed over the other. the gene that is expressed is called dominant
The unexpressed gene is called what?
recessive
Histones
DNA molecules and their important genetic material are tightly packed around proteins are called Histones!
Chromosomes
human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell, for 46 chromosomes in total
Genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype
the collection of physical characteristics that result from the actions of genes is called an organism’s phenotype
DNA
DNA is the primary code of life
DNA is A,T, G,C
RNA
RNA is a single stranded nucleic acid strand that can codes for amino acid sequence.
RNA includes A, U, G C
Mitosis
is the process of a single cell splitting to form two new somatic cells.
Somatic Cells
are any cell that is not a reproductive sex cell.
What are the 5 major phases of Mitosis?
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,Telophase&Cytokinesis
Interphase
in interphase,which is the growth phase, the cell has recently divided and is growing again. During this period of time, new proteins are being made as well as additional organelles, Additional DNA is also made during this phase.
Prophase
in this stage, the cell is preparing to divide. the DNA condenses into chromatin and forms into chromosomes. The centrioles with the cell migrate to opposite ends of the cell.
Metaphase
In metaphase, the centrioles have attached actin filaments to the individual chromosome, and have started pulling them to opposite ends of the cell. The cell itself begins to elongate and stretch.
Anaphase
in anaphase, the chromosomes cleave, and there are now two sets of diploid chromosomes
Telophase & Cytokinesis
The chromosomes are now on separate ends of the cell, and the cell membrane splits. Two new cells are now formed which are now both in interphase again.
meiosis
only occurs in eukaryotes, and is a process necessary to produce sex cells for sexual reproduction.
Meiosis I
in the first stage of meiosis, the cell (in humans at least) starts with 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 total chromosomes. During Meiosis I,crossing over occurs. Crossing over is a process in which homologous ( homologous means same) chromosomes exchange parts with one another.
After crossing over the cell splits into two daughter cells, each have 23 chromosomes but are now HAPLOID, each chromosomes consists of a pair of sister chromatids.
Meiosis II
in Meiosis II the process is essentially the same as mitosis, with sister chromatids being separated into a total of four cells. Each of these cells will contain one pair of sister chromatids. The sister chromatids in these now gametes will be able to fuse with another pair of sister chromatids from another sex cell to creat an embryo.
First law of genetics
The first law is the law of segregation. this law states that all traits are governed by gene alleles, which come in pairs. In sexual reproduction, each parent gives one allele to the offspring.
XY
XX
Second Law of genetics
The second law is the law of independent assortment. This law states that genes for separate traits are passed to the offspring independently. For example, the gene for black hair is independent from the gene for height. having one gene does not guarantee having the other.
The third law of genetics
The third law is the law of dominance. This states that dominant alleles will mask the effect of recessive alleles. For example, black hair is a dominant allele. if one parent has black hair and the other is red hair(which is recessive allele), and the child receives one black hair and red hair allele, the black haired is dominant allele will mask the effect of the red haired allele, resulting in a child which has black hair.
Co-Dominance:
Gene alleles which can both be expressed without one being dominant over the other are termed co-dominnat. Example are individuals which have an AB blood typed.
Parent Generation
This is the generation which is initially studied
F1 generation:
The F1 generation represents the 1st filial (child) generation. They are the offspring of the parent generation.
F2 generation
The F2 generation represents the 2nd filial (child) generation. They are the offspring of the F1 generation.
Gene Pool
The gene pool is the collection of all genes in a species population.
Homozygous
Homozygous means “same”. A homozygous gene is one that one of each allele.
Heterozygous
Heterozygous means different. A heterozygous gene is one that one of each allele, for example Rr.
Mutation
a mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of the gene. A mutation can be caused by an error in DNA replication, exposure to chemicals, or radiation.
DNA transcription
In the first step, called DNA transcription, a strand of DNA is copied by RNA polymerase into a strand of messenger RNA(mRNA). First RNA polymerase, along with some promoter proteins, binds to DNA, unwinding it slightly. Then, RNA makes a copy of the DNA sequence using nucleotides, forming a strand of messenger RNA. The RN is produced from the 3’ end to the 5’.
After the mRNA strand has been produced, the intron regions need to be removed. the intron regions are non-coding portions of DNA that don’t mean anything. The introns are removed by a complex called the spliceosome, and the remaining exons(the coding regions) are spliced back together to get the final mRNA product.
RNA translation:
In the 2nd major step, the mRNA strand is carried to a ribosome. The majority of ribosomes are located on the endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells, although some whose purpose is to read the mRNA and assemble a string of amino acids, which will later be folded into a protein.
The mRNA strand is read in sets of 3. Each set of 3 nucleotides, called a codon, in the mRNA strand represents an amino acid. A codon table and the represented amino acid is seen in the table below.
Each amino acid is represented by three or more different codons. As a result, even if there is a small mutation in the DNA strand, often there will be no result, because it may end up coding for the same amino acid anyway.
The mRNA is thus read by the ribosome, which receives amino acids carried by t-RNA molecules(transport RNA). The amino acids are formed into a long polypeptide chain, which after completion, will be folded into a protein.
Protein folding
the final step, the completed amino acid chain is folded into its correct 3D structure. A protein has 4 types of structure:
PRIMARY: the primary structure of a protein is the amino acid sequence.
SECONDARY: the secondary structure of a protein are the substructures that are formed when protein folding begins. Certain sequences of amino acids are able to form into structures that resemble a sheet, called a beta-sheet, or a helix, called an alpha helix.
TETIARY: the majority of proteins have a 3D structure called tertiary structure. This structure is formed from the interaction of all the secondary structures in a protein. Some proteins may be globular, or round in nature, whereas others might be cylindrical or flat.
QUATERNARY: some proteins, but not all, have a quaternary structure. a quaternary structure is one that is an interaction between multiple proteins. For example, the hemoglobin protein, which carries oxygen in blood, will interact as a set of 4 hemoglobin proteins surround iron heme groups.
