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Body Parts And Systems Flashcards

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0
Q

Directional term: Inferior

A

Toward the lower body region

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1
Q

Directional term: Superior

A

Toward the head, or toward the upper body region

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2
Q

Directional term: Anterior (Ventral)

A

On the belly or front side of the body

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3
Q

Directional terms: Posterior ( Dorsal)

A

On the back or buttocks side of the body

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4
Q

Directional terms: Proximal

A

Near the trunk or middle part of the body

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5
Q

Directional terms: Distal

A

Furthest away from the point of reference

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6
Q

Directional terms: Medial

A

Close to the midline of the body

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7
Q

Directional terms: Lateral

A

Away from the middle of the body

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8
Q

Structure hierarchy of the human body

A

Organism,organ systems, organ, tissues,cells,molecules, atoms

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9
Q 
Prefixes : 
Epi-
Hyper-
Hypo-
Intra-
Para-
Per-
Peri-
Sub-
A 
On/upon
Over
Under
Within
Beside
Through
Surrounding
Under
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10
Q

Suffixes:

  • coccyx
  • ectomy
  • malacia
  • tome
  • tomy
  • rrhea
  • plasty
  • opsy
A 
Spherical bacterium
Condition
Removal
Softening
An instrument to cut
To cut
Discharge 
Surgical repair
View of
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11
Q

Body cavities: cranial cavity

A

Contains the brain

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12
Q

Body cavities: spinal cavity

A

Contains the spinal cord, and extends from the brain stem in the cranial cavity to the end of the spinal cord

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13
Q

Body cavities: thoracic cavity

A

Contains the lungs,heart,and large blood vessels, and is separated from the abdomen by the diaphragm

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14
Q

Body cavities: abdominal cavity

A

Contains the stomach,intestines,liver,gallbladder,pancreas,spleen,and kidneys and is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm

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15
Q

Body cavities:pelvic cavity

A

Contains the urinary bladder,urinary structures,and reproductive organs

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16
Q

Circulatory system

A

Vital to human functioning: composed of cardiovascular and pulmonary systems

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17
Q

Cardiovascular system:

A

Includes heart, blood, and blood vessels. This is where circulation begins,ends, and begins again.

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18
Q

Pulmonary system:

A

Composed of lungs and muscles that allow breathing.

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19
Q

Cardiovascular system:

A

Vital role in the functioning of humans:

Distributes oxygen,nutrients and hormones to the entire body. ( whole system relies on the heart)

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20
Q

HEART:function

A

Muscular organ that MUST pump blood low in oxygen to the lungs, and once blood is in the lungs, it is oxygenated and returned to the heart. The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood through out the body

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21
Q

Heart: where is it located

A

Located inside the rib cage, between the second and sixth rib on the left side of the body

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22
Q

Heart shape

A

Slightly coned shape
Narrow part called apex (points down and to the left of the body)
Broad part of the heart is called the base( points upwards)

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23
Q

What is the cavity that holds the heart?

A

Pericardial cavity
Filled with serous fluid produced by the pericardium
Fluid acts as a lubricant for the heart.

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24
Q

What is the three layers of the heart wall?

A

Epicardium, Myocardium,Endocardium

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25
Q

Epicardium

A

The outermost layer of the heart, and is one of the two layers of the pericardium.

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26
Q

Myocardium

A

Middle layer of the heart that contains the cardiac muscular tissue. It performs the of pumping what is necessary for the circulation of blood. Most massive part of the heart

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27
Q

Endocardium

A

Smooth innermost layer that keeps the blood from sticking to the inside of the heart.

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28
Q

Four chambers of the heart

A

Right atrium, left atrium. Right ventricle, left ventricle

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29
Q

What is an atria

A

Plural for atrium- smaller than the ventricles- have thin walls-

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30
Q

What is the function of the atrium?

A

To receive blood from the lungs and the body and pump it to the ventricles.

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31
Q

What is a ventricle

A

They are larger chambers and have a thicker wall

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32
Q

What do ventricles do

A

Ventricles have to pump the blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.

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33
Q

Name the valves of the heart

A

Atrioventricular valves, semilunar valves

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34
Q

Name the atrioventricular valves:

A

Tricuspid valve

Mitral valve

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35
Q

Name the semilunar valves

A

Aortic valve

Pulmonary valve

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36
Q

The pumping function of the heart is made possible by what two groups of cells that set the hearts pace and keep it well coordinated

A

Sinoatrial node

Atrioventricular node

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37
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

Sets the pace and signals the atria to contract

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38
Q

Atrioventricular node

A

Picks up the signal from the sinoatrial node, and this signal tells the ventricles to contract

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39
Q

What do blood vessels do

A

Carry the blood from and to the heart, to the body,and back again

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40
Q

Arteries

A

Blood vessels that transport the blood away from the heart. Work under more pressure than other blood vessels:
Thicker more muscular walls that are high elastic

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41
Q

What is the largest artery in the body

A

Aorta

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42
Q

Where is the aorta located

A

Ascends from the left ventricle of the heart, arches to the back left, and descends behind the heart.

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43
Q

What are arterioles?

A

Narrow arteries that branch off of the main arteries and carry blood to capillaries.

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44
Q

What does the aorta do?

A

The descending part of the aorta carries blood to the lower parts of the body,except the lungs. Lungs get blood from the pulmonary artery that comes out of the right ventricle?

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45
Q

What three arteries does the aorta arch branch off to?

A

Brachiocephalic artery
Left common carotid artery
Left subclavian artery

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46
Q

Brachiocephalic artery

A

Carries blood to the brain and head. The brachiocephalic artery divides into the right subclavian artery, which brings the blood to the right arm.

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47
Q

Left common carotid artery

A

Carries blood to the brain

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48
Q

Left subclavian artery

A

Carries blood to the left arm

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49
Q

What are veins

A

Are blood vessels that bring the blood from to the body and back to the heart.
They are thinner and not as muscular because they don’t work under the same pressure as arteries.
Also have one way valves that stop the blood from going back through them.

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50
Q

Lungs have their own set of veins. What are those veins called?

A

The left and right superior and inferior pulmonary veins

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51
Q

Two main veins are?

A

Superior vena cava

Inferior vena cava

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52
Q

Superior vena cava

A

This vein ascends from right atrium and connects to the head and neck, delivering the blood supply to these structures. The superior vena cava also connects to the arm via both subclavian and brachiocephalic veins.

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53
Q

Inferior vena cava

A

This vessels descends from the right atrium, carrying the blood from the lumber veins, gonadal veins,hepatic veins, phrenic veins and renal veins.

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54
Q

Capillaries

A

Smallest blood vessels and most populous in the body

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55
Q

Capillaries carry what

A

Blood very close to the cells,thus enable cells to exchange gasses,nutrients, and cellular waste

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56
Q

Blood

A

Is the medium for the transport of substances throughout the body

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57
Q

What are the components of the blood

A

Red blood cells, hemoglobin, white blood cells, platelets,plasma

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58
Q

How much blood is in the body

A

There are 4 to 5 liters in the body

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59
Q

Red blood cells RBC’s

A

Also called erythrocytes, red blood cells are produced inside the red bone marrow and they serve to transport oxygen.

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60
Q

Hemoglobin HGB

A

Hemoglobin is red pigment found in the red blood cells,and HGB is rich in iron and proteins, which both allow these cells to transport the oxygen. Hemoglobin also has nick cave shape,which it is round and thinner in the middle. This gives them a larger surface area, making them more effective.

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61
Q

White blood cells WBC’s

A

Also called leukocytes, white blood cells are important for the human immune system. There are two classes of white blood cells: granular and agranular leukocytes.

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62
Q

Granular leukocytes

A

Are divided into three types: the neutrophils that digest bacteria, the eosinophils that digest viruses, and the basophils that release histamine

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63
Q

Agranular leukocytes

A

Divided into two cases: the lymphocytes, which fight off viral infections and produce antibodies for fighting pathogen-induced infection and the monocytes,which play a role in removing pathogens and dead cells from wounds

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64
Q

Platelets

A

Called thrombocytes, platelets are vital for blood clotting. They are formed in the red bone marrow and serve many functions in the body.

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65
Q

Plasma

A

Liquid part of the blood, and it forms 55 percent of the total blood volume. Plasma consists of up to 90 percent water, as well as proteins- including antibodies and albumins. Other substances in plasma are circulating in the blood plasma,also,such as glucose,nutrients, cell waste, and various gasses.

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66
Q

The heart works by shifting between what two states:

A

Systole

Diastole

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67
Q

Systole

A

Means cardiac muscles are contracting and moving blood from any given chamber

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68
Q

Diastole

A

Means the muscles are relaxing and the chamber is expanding to fill with blood.

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69
Q

Systole and diastole are responsible for what?

A

The pressure in major arteries

This is what is measured at exams

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70
Q

Cardiac cycle

A

Series of events that happen during one heartbeat

  1. Artial systole : first phase of the cardiac cycle is atrial systole. With this, the blood is pushed by the atria through the valves into the ventricles, which are in diastole during that event
  2. Ventricular systole: after atrial systole,ventricular systole occurs. This pushes the blood from the ventricles to the organs, which occurs while the atria are diastole.
  3. Relaxation phase: after ventricular systole,there is a pause called the relaxation phase.during this,all the chambers are in diastole, and the blood enters the atria through the veins
  4. refilling phase: when atria are at 75% of their capacity, the cycle starts again. With the refilling phase, atria are fully before a atrial systole again.
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71
Q

What are the four steps to blood cell oxygenation?

A
  1. The poorly oxygenated blood comes into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava.
  2. The blood is then passed to the right ventricle, which sends it through the pulmonary artery into the lungs where oxygenation occurs.
  3. Oxygen-rich blood then comes to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins, and gets moved from the left atrium to the left ventricle.
  4. by way of blood pressure, the blood is then sent from the left ventricle through the aorta and the aortic arch into the arteries in the whole body.
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72
Q

Respiratory system

A

System responsible for intake of the gas and in charge of removing carbon dioxide from the body.

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73
Q

Respiratory system divided into what two sections

A

Upper respiratory tract

Lower respiratory tract

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74
Q

Upper respiratory tract

A

Nose,nasal cavity,olfactory membranes,mouth,pharynx,epiglottis,and larynx

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75
Q

Nose

A

Primary body part for air intake and removing carbon dioxide.
Made of bone,cartilage,muscle,and skin
Protector of the nasal cavity

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76
Q

Nasal cavity

A

Covered with hair and mucus- stops contaminants from outside- dust,mold,particles

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77
Q

Three important roles of nasal cavity

A

Moisturizing
Warming
Filtering the air

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78
Q

Olfactory membranes

A

Small organs responsible for our sense of smell

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79
Q

Mouth

A

Can breathe through but not primary breathing opening. Advantages: can take in more air,physically closer to the lungs,making passage of air shorter, that’s why we breathe through the mouth when we need a lot of air fast

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80
Q

Pharynx (throat)

A

Smooth muscular structure. Lined with mucous that is divided into three regions:
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

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81
Q

Air and food passage ways

A

Through nose then through the nasopharynx (also where the Eustachian tubes connect with the pharynx. Air continues through the rest of the throat and then comes in through the mouth.once air enters the throat it is in the oropharynx which is same passageway used for transporting food when eating. Both air and food also pass through the laryngopharynx which is where these substances get diverted.

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82
Q

Epiglottis

A

Body part that is responsible for keeping air into the trachea and the food going into the esophagus.

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83
Q

Larynx

A

Part of the airway that sits between the pharynx and trachea. Called the voice box

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84
Q

Lower respiratory tract consists of:

A

Trachea,bronchi,lungs,and muscles that help with breathing.

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85
Q

Trachea (windpipe)

A

Part of the respiratory system between the larynx and bronchi.

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86
Q

Interior of trachea

A

Lined with mucous producing cells that have h,air like fringes that resemble hair(cilia) allow air to pass through.helps mucous move up the airways and out to keep the air passage free.

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87
Q

Bronchi

A

Connecting to trachea-branch to the left and to the right of the primary bronchi.

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88
Q

Primary bronchi

A

Made out of many c-shaped cartilage rings, they branch into the secondary bronchi.
Two branch from the left bronchi and three branch from the right bronchi.
Corresponding with the number of lobes in the lungs

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89
Q

Secondary bronchi

A

Contains less cartilage and have more space between the rings. Splits off to the tertiary bronchi also divides in the lobe of the lungs

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90
Q

All the bronchi are lined with what?

A

Epithelium which contains: goblet cells,cilia

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91
Q

Goblet cells

A

Produce the mucus that coasts the lining of the bronchi and traps foreign particles and organisms.

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92
Q

Cilia

A

Hair like structures that move the mucus up and out of the lungs keeping them clean and healthy

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93
Q

Bronchioles

A

Branch from the tertiary bronchi. Contains no cartilage at all - made of smooth muscle and elastic fiber tissue

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94
Q

Changes that happen in the bronchioles are

A

When the body needs more oxygen, they expand

When there is danger of pollutants entering the lungs ,they constrict.

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95
Q

Alveoli

A

Small cavities located in the alveolar sacs and surrounded by capillaries.

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96
Q

Where does gas exchange happen in the lungs

A

The alveoli

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97
Q

Lungs

A

Two spongy organs that contain bronchi,bronchioles,alveoli,and blood vessels.

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98
Q

What are the lungs surrounded by?

A

The Pleura, a double-layered membrane

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99
Q

Pleura consists of :

A

The outer layer, called the parietal pleura, and the inner layer called visceral pleura.

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100
Q

Lung Lobes

A

lungs are divided into lobes, with the larger lobe being the right one consisting of three lobes and the smaller lobe being the left lobe only consisting of two.

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101
Q

Muscles of Respiration:

A

muscles that play a major role are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

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102
Q

Two types of intercostal muscles:

A

intercostal muscle: these help w breathing out (expiration) by depressing ribs and compressing the thoracic cavity.
external intercostal muscle: these do the
opposite and help with breathing in (inspiration)

103
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

breathing in and out

104
Q

two types of pulmonary ventilation

A

inhalation and exhalation

105
Q

Inhalation- Inspiration

A
  • the diaphragm contracts and moves a few inches towards the stomach, making more space for the lungs to expand, and this movement pulls the air into the lungs.
  • the external intercostal muscles also contract to expand the rib cage, and pull more air into the lungs.
  • the lungs are naturally at a pressure lower than the atmosphere, or negative pressure,which also makes air come into to lungs until reaching a certain point. At this point, the pressure inside the lungs and the atmospheric pressure are the same.
  • the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles then expand the thoracic cavity to make the pressure in teh lungs below that of the atomosphere, and this action continues to fill the lungs with air.
106
Q

Exhalation-expiration

A
  • when breathing out, the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax, and the internal intercostal muscles contract.
  • the thoracic cavity becomes smaller, and the pressure in the lungs gets higher than the atmospheric pressure, which moves air out of the lungs.
  • after this, the lungs return back to the negative pressure state by themselves.
107
Q

Tidal Volume

A

Shallow breathing, where air is moved at around half of a liter.

108
Q

Vital Capacity

A

deep breathing, a larger amount of air is moved(thre to five liters)

109
Q

Eupnea

A

term for the breathing our body does when resting. consisting of mostly shallow breaths with an occasional deep breath.

110
Q

Are the lungs ever completely out of air

A

No! they are always with about an liter of air.

111
Q

Skeletal System

A

made up of bones and joints

112
Q

What is the skeletal system responsible for:

A

providing support and protection, allowing movement, blood cell genesis, storing fat, iron, and calcium, guiding the growth of the entire body

113
Q

Skeleton system divided into what two divisions:

A

The axial skeleton

The appendicular skeleton

114
Q

Axial Skeleton

A

Consists of 80 bones, which are placed along the body’s midline and axis and grouped into the regions of skull, ribs, and sternum as well as the vertebral column

115
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

Consists of 126 bones grouped into the regions of upper and lower limbs, as well as the pelvic and the pectoral girdle.

116
Q

Bone parts

A

consists of two parts: the matrix and living bone cells

117
Q

bone matrix

A

the non-living part of the bone, which is made out of water, collagen, protein, calcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate crystals.

118
Q

Living bone cells

A

these are found at the edges of the bones and throughout the bone matrix in small cavities. Bone cells play a vital part in the growth, development and repair of bones, and can be used for the mineral they store.

119
Q

Cross section of a bone reveals what layers

A

Periosteum, compact bone, Trabeculae

120
Q

Periosteum

A

topmost layer of the bone and it is a layer of connective tissue on the surface of the bones. Contains collage fibers that serve to anchor the tendons and muscles as well as the stem and osteoblast cells that are necessary for growth and repair of the bones. Nervous tissue, nerve endings, and blood vessels are also present.

121
Q

Compact bone

A

under the periosteum is a layer of compact bone, which gives its strength. made out of mineral salts and collagen fibers. also contains cavities where the living bone cells osteocytes can be found.

122
Q

Trabeculae

A

under the compact bone is a layer where the bone tissue grows in columns called trabeculae. The bone tissue forms space that contains the red bone marrow. The Trabeculae give the bone structural strength by the way they grow, while keeping them light.

123
Q

Name the five types of bones

A

long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid

124
Q

long bone

A

Long bones make up the major bones of the limbs. They are longer than they are wide, and they are responsible for the most of our height. The long bones can be divided in to regions. Epiphyses and diaphysis.

125
Q

Epiphyses

A

Located at the ends of the bone

126
Q

Diaphysis

A

located in the middle-

diaphysis contains a hollow medullary cavity, which serves as a storage for bone marrow.

127
Q

Short bones

A

short bones are roughly as long as they are wide, and are generally cube-shaped or round. short bones in the body included the carpal bones of the wrist and tarsal bones of the foot.

128
Q

Flat bones

A

flat bones do not have the medullary cavity because they are thing and usually thinner on one end regions. Flat bones in the body include the ribes, the hip bone, as well as the frontal, the parietal, and the occipital bones of the skull.

129
Q

Irregular bone

A

irregular bones are those bones that do not fit the criteria to be the long, the short, or the flat bones. The vertebrae and the sacrum, among other, are irregular bones.

130
Q

Sesamoid bone

A

there are only two sesamoid bones that actually counted as bones. the patella and the pisiform bone. Sesamoid bones are formed inside the tendons located across the joints, and apart from the two mentioned, the are not present in all people.

131
Q

joints

A

Also knowns as artculations

where the bones come in contact with each other, the cartilage or a tooth.

132
Q

Three types of joints

A

synovial, fibrous, and cartilaginous joints

133
Q

Synovial Joint

A

synovial joints feature a small gab between the bones that is filled with synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint. They are the most present type of joints in the body and they allow the most of the movement

134
Q

Fibrous Joints

A

Fibrous joints enable little to no movement, as they are present where the bones fit tight together. These joints also hold the teeth in their sockets.

135
Q

Cartilaginous Joints

A

Cartilaginous joints enable little movement, as they’re present where there is a layer of cartilage between two bones. They are also present where the bones meet the cartilage.

136
Q

skull

A

made up of 22 bones, protects the brain and the sense organs for vision, hearing, smell, taste, and balance.

137
Q

21 of the 22 skull bones are fused together what is the name of the bone that is not fused?

A

Mandible- the jaw bone - only moveable bone in the skull

138
Q

Cranium

A

upper part of the skull is known as the cranium, which is the pat that protects the brain, while the lower and frontal parts of the skull form the facial bones.

139
Q

Hyoid

A

located just under the mandible,and not a part of the skull, is they hyoid bone. The hyoid is the only bone in the body that is not attached to any other bone. It helps with keeping the trachea open, and is where the tongue muscles are anchored.

140
Q

What bone is the only bone that is not attached to another bone?

A

Hyoid

141
Q

Auditory Ossicles

A

another group of bones that are not a part of the skull, but are closely connected are the auditory ossicles: the malleus, incus, and stapes. The play an important role in hearing.

142
Q

Vertebral column

A

also know as the spine, begins at the base of the skull and stretches through the trunk down to the middle and to the back of the coccyx.

143
Q

How many Vertebrae are there?

A

24 vertebrae plus the sacrum and the coccyx

144
Q

What are the three groups of vertebrae

A

Cervical or neck vertebrae 7 of them
thoracic or chest vertebrae 12 of them
lumbar or lower back 5 of them

145
Q

What forms the rib cage of the thoracic region

A

ribs and the sternum bones

146
Q

How many ribs are there?

A

12 ribs all together. the first seven are attached directly to the sternum and the next 3 are to cartilage between the seventh rib and the sternum and the last two are what are called floating ribs. All are attached on the backside to the thoracic vertebrae.

147
Q

Upper limbs

A

belong to the appendicular skeleton and are connected to with the axial skeleton by the pectoral girdle.

148
Q

Pectoral girdle

A

formed from the left and right clavicle and scapula.

149
Q

what forms the shoulder joint

A

the scapula and the humerus (the bones of the upper arm) form the ball and socket of the shoulder joint.

150
Q

two forearm bones

A

the ulna- this bone forms the elbow joint with the humerus

the radius- this bone allows the turning movement at the wrist.

151
Q

wrist bones

A

8 carpal bones which themselves are connected with the 5 metacarpal bones.

152
Q

what are the 3 bones of the fingers and only 2 bones of thumbs

A

fingers have 3 phalanges and thumbs have 2

153
Q

Lower limbs

A

belong to the appendicular skeleton just like upper limbs are connected by the axial skeleton by the pelvic girdle

154
Q

Pelvic girdle

A

made out of the left and right hip bone

155
Q

Hip bones

A

the hip joint is formed by the hip bone and femur. on the other end the femur forms the knee joint with the patella-kneecap_ and the tibia which is one of the ones of the lower leg.

156
Q

what is the largest bone of the body

A

femur

157
Q

leg bones

A

out of the two lower leg bones, teh tibia is the larger one, and it serves to carry the weight of the body. The fibula, the other one, serves mostly to anchor the muscle. Together, these two bones form the ankle joint with one the 7 tarsal bones of the foot, call the talus.

158
Q

Foot bone

A

The tarsal bones form the back part of the foot and the heel. They connect to the 5 long metararsals, which form the foot itself and connect to the toes. Each toe is made out of 3 phalanges, except the big toe, which has 2 phlanges.

159
Q

support and protection role of skeletal system

A

skull protects and supports the brain and sensor organs
thoracic cage supports and protects the lungs and heart
vertebral column supports the upper body while protecting the spinal column
limbs provide support and they serve as anchor points for muscles.

160
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

inside the red bone marrow, which is located in the medullar cavity of the bones, a process called hematopoiesis occures. In the process, white and red blood cells are made. The amount of red bone marrow declines at the end of puberty, as a significant part of it is replaced by yellow bone marrow

161
Q

Calcification

A

when we are born we have 300 bones. As we grow the structure of the bones changes. The bones change their structure. from mostly hyaline cartilage and connective tissue to the osseous tissue- bones also fuse together which is why adults have 206 bones.

162
Q

Muscular System

A

Help movement, attach bones

163
Q

Three types of muscle

A

visceral muscle
cardiac muscle
skeletal muscle

164
Q

Visceral muscle

A

also known as smooth muscle: weakest type of muscle

165
Q

Where can smooth muscle be found?

A

stomach, intestine, and blood vessels

166
Q

Is smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary

A

involuntary muscles. controlled by the unconscious part of the brain.

167
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Only found in the heart

168
Q

Is the cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary?

A

although the heart is not controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is still involuntary muscle.

169
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

only types of muscle that contracts and relaxes by voluntary action.

170
Q

How are Tendons formed?

A

formed out of connective tissue rich in collagen fibers.

171
Q

sarcoplasmic

A

cell membranes that cover the muscle fibers. Calcium ions, which are necessary for contractions of the muscle are stored here.

172
Q

Two types of Skeletal muscle fibers

A

Type 1: These are slow contracting, fatigue-resistant fibers that are used for stamina and posture. They owe their fatigue resistance to the fact they produce energy from sugar using aerobic respiration.
Type 2: These are stronger but less enduring muscles. Type 2 A are more mostly found in legs and are less strong and more enduring than type 2 B, which are found mostly in the arms.

173
Q

How do Skeletal muscles work?

A

They work by contraction. This shortens the length in their middle part, called the muscle belly, which in turn pulls one bone closer to the other. The place of the bone that is not actually moving, that remains stationary, is called origin. The insertion is the place of the other bone, the one that is actually moving towards the other.
Skeletal muscles rarely work alone. They usually work in a groups, in which the main muscle responsible for the action is called the agonist, and it’s always paired with another muscle that does the opposite action, called antagonist. If the two were to contract together at the same time, they would cancel each other out and produce no movement. other muscles that support agonist are: synergists and fixators

174
Q

Synergists

A

usually found near teh agonist and attached to the same bones, stabilize the movements and reduce unnecessary movement.

175
Q

Fixators

A

which keep the origin stable

176
Q

how many skeletal muscles are there

A

600 skeletal muscles

177
Q

four functions of the muscular system

A

movement- it enables us to move
maintaining the posture- it enables us to stand still or in a particular position.
substance movement though the body- this is the main role of the cardiac and visceral muscles
body heat generation- when muscles work, they produce a lot of waste heat, which is responsible for our natural body temperature as well as the raised temperature after exertion.

178
Q

what are the neurons that control the muscles called

A

motor neurons

179
Q

types of contractions

A

Isotonic muscle contractions- these are muscle contractions that produce movement
Isometric muscle contractions- this type does not produce movement; rather, they maintain posture and keep us still.
Muscle tone- this involves naturally occurring constant semi contraction of the muscle.
Twitch contraction- this is a short contraction caused by a single, short nerve impulse.
Temporal summation- this is a phenomenon is which a few short impulses delivered over time build up the muscle contraction in strength and duration.
Tetanus- this is a state of constant contraction caused by many rapid short impulses.

180
Q

Two ways muscles get energy

A

using oxygen from aerobic respiration, which is the more effective way to get energy.
using lactic acid fermentation, which is a type of anaerobic respiration. it’s less effective and is only happens when the blood can not get into muscle due to the very strong contraction.

both of these are aimed at producing adenosine tri phosphate(ATP) from glucose ATP is the most important energy molecule of our bodies. During conversion adenosine di-phosphate (ADP), energy is released

181
Q

other molecules for energy production

A

myoglobin works similarly as hemoglobin- it stores oxygen, giving the muscles an amount of time of aerobic respiration even when there is no blood coming into the muscles.
creatine phosphate- Which gives its phosphate group to the energy to the energy-depleted adenosine di-phosphate and turns in back into the energy rich ATP
Glycogen- a large molecule made out of a number of glucose molecules. muscles use the glucose to get ATP.

182
Q

what happens when a muscle runs out of energy

A

Muscle fatigue.
meaning it has little to no oxyge, ATP or glucose an da lot of lactic acid and ADP. When this happens it needs a lot of oxygen to replace the oxygen use from myoglobin and to rebuild the other energy supplies.

183
Q

Nervous System made up of?

A

made up of the brain, the spinal cord, the nerves, and the sensory organs.

184
Q

What are the two parts of the nervous system

A

Central Nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for processing and storing information, as well as deciding on the appropriate action and issuing commands.

Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) is responsible for gathering information, transporting it to the CNS, and then transporting the commands from the CNS to the appropriate organs. Sensory organs and nerves doe the gathering and transporting of information, while teh efferent nerves transport the commands.

185
Q

Neurons

A

the nerve cells: divided into several different parts:
Soma: this is the body of the neuron, and it contains most of the cellular organelles.
Dendrites: these are small treelike structures that extend from the soma. Their main responsibility is to carry information to the soma, and sometimes away from it.
Axon: this is a long, thing projection that also extends from the soma. There is usually sending information form the soma and rarely to it
Synapes: the places where two neurons meet, or where they meet other types of cells are called synapes.

186
Q

What are the three classes of neurons?

A

Efferent Neurons- the motor neurons responsible for transmitting signals from the CNS to the effectors in the body.
Afferent Neurons- the sensory neurons responsible for receptors in the body to the CNS
Interneurons- The neurons that form the complex networks in the CNS. They are responsible for the integration of the signals received from the afferent neurons, and controlling the body by sending signals through the efferent neurons.

187
Q

What are the maintenance cells for the neurons?

A

Neuralgia

neuralgia cells number of which surrounds every neuron to protect and feed them. also called glial cells.

188
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

The Brain

Spinal cord

189
Q

What are the cavities that the Brain and Spinal cord are housed in?

A

Brain is housed in the cranial cavity while the spinal cord is housed in the vertebral cavity.

190
Q

Meniges

A

protective covering of the CNS.
Three distinct layers
Dura mater: as its name suggests, is the most durable outer part of the meninges. It is made out of collagen fibers-rich thick connective tissue, and it forms a space for the cerebrospinal fluid around the CNS.
Arachnoid mater: this is the thin lining on the inner side of the dura mater. it forms many tiny fibers that connect the dura mater with the next layer-the pia mater.
Pia mater: this is separated from the arachnoid mater by the subarachnoid space-a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The pia mater directly covers the surface of the brain and spinal cord, and provide sustenance to the nervous tissue through its many blood vessels.

191
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

clear fluid formed from blood plasma: found in the subarachnoid space, the ventricles of hollow spaces in the brain, central canal, a cavity found in the middle of the spinal cord.

192
Q

Nervous tissue that makes up the brain is called what?

A

gray matter and white matter.

193
Q

Gray matter

A

which consists mostly of interneurons that are unmyelinated, and is the tissue where the actual processing of signals happens. it is also where the connection between neurons are made.

194
Q

White matter

A

which consists mostly of myelinated neurons, and is the tissue that conducts signals to, from, and between the gray matter regions.

195
Q

What are the 3 distinct parts of the brain?

A

The forebrain_ prosencephalon
The midbrain-mesencephalon
The hindbrain-Rhombencephalon

196
Q

The forebrain consists of what two regions?

A

The cerebrum and diencephalon

197
Q

Cerebrum

A

the outermost and largest part of the brain.
divided through the middle by the longitudinal fissure in the left and right hemisphere, which then is divided into four lobes
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe

198
Q

What is the cerebrum surface called?

A

The cerebral cortex

199
Q

Cerebral cortex is made out of what?

A

gray matter with characteristic grroves(Sulci) and bulges(gyri). the cerebral cortex is where the actual processing happens in the cerebrum.

200
Q

What is the cerebrum responsible for?

A

responsible for the higher brain functions like thinking and using language.

201
Q

What connects the two hemispheres?

A

a special band of white matter that is called corpus callosum

202
Q

What are the regions located under the white matter are divided into two groups

A

The basal nuclei, which help control and regulate the movement of muscles
the limbic system- which play a role in memory, emotions and survival

203
Q

Diencephalon

A

formed by the thalamus, hyphthalamus, pineal gland,

204
Q

Thalamus

A

made out of two gray matter masses, the thalamus is located around the third ventricle of the brain. its role is to route the sensory signals to the correct parts of the cerebral cortex.

205
Q

Hypothalamus

A

located under the thalamus, the hypothalamus plays a role in regulating hunger, thirst, blood pressure, and body temperature changes, as well as the heart rate and the production of hormones.

206
Q

Pineal Gland

A

located beneath the hypothalamus, and directly controlled by it, the pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin, which plays a vital role in sleep.

207
Q

Mesencephalon

A

the midbrain, topmost part of the brain stem.
Divided into two regions
tectum
cerebral peduncules

208
Q

Tectum

A

which plays a role in reflex reactions to visual and auditory information

209
Q

Cerebral peduncules

A

which connect the cerebrum and thalamus with the lower part of the brain stem, and the spinal cord. It also contains substantia nigra, which is involved in muscle movements by inhibiting their movements.

210
Q

Rhombencephalon

A

The hindbrain: made up of the brain stem and cerebellum. two parts of the brain stem form the hindbrain:
medulla oblongata
pons

211
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

connects the spinal cord with another part of the brainstem, called the pons. it is mostly made out of white matter, but it also contains gray matter that processes involuntary body function like blood pressure, level of oxygen in the blood, and reflexes like sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

212
Q

Pons

A

are located between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain, and in front of the cerebellum. It is in charge of transporting signals to and from the cerebellum and the between the upper regions of the brain, the medulla and the spinal cord.

213
Q

cerebellum

A

smaller version of teh cerebrum. two spheres
outer layer consists of gray matter called teh cerebellar cortex
Inner layer consists of white matter called the arbor vitae

role to control and coordinate complex muscle activities. helps us maintain posture and keep balance.

214
Q

Spinal Cord

A

located inside the vertebral cavity, is made out of both white and gray matter. It serves to both carry signals and to process some reflexes to stimuli. the spinal nerves stretch out from it.

215
Q

Peripheral Nervous System PNS

A

role is to carry signals to and from the spinal cord to the brain .

216
Q

Five types of the PNS

A

The afferent, efferent, and mixed nerves, the spinal nerves, and cranial nerves

217
Q

afferent, efferent, mixed nerves

A

which are formed out of the neurons that share the same name, they perform the same role.

218
Q

spinal nerves

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves_ extend from the side of the spinal cord. They exit the spinal cord between the vertebrae, and they carry information to and from the spinal cord and the neck, the arms, the legs and the trunk. They are grouped and named according the region they originate from:
8 pairs of cervical, 12 pairs of thoracic, 5 pairs of lumbar, 5 pairs of sacral, and 1 pair coccygeal nerves.

219
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

12 pairs of these nerves extend from the lower side of the brain. The are identified by their number, and they serve to connect the brain with the sense organs, head muscles, neck and shoulders muscle, the heart and the gastrointestinal track.

220
Q

Sense Organs

A

specialized organs and general sense organs.

221
Q

specialized organs

A

hearing, sight, balance, smell, and taste

222
Q

General sense organs

A

touch, pain and temperature.

223
Q

Are senses part of the PNS or CNS

A

All senses are part of the PNS,and their role is to detect the stimuli and send the signal to the CNS when the detection occurs.

224
Q

3 main function of the Nervous System

A

Sensory function: is related to the intake of information from inside and outside of the body through the sensory organs and receptiors, and then sending that information to the CNS.
Integration: is a process that happens in the CNS. When the signal from the sensory organs and receptors come to the CNS, the information it carries is evaluated, compared to previously stored information, stored or discareded, and used to make a decision.
Motor function: occurs once the integration is done,
and the CNS may send a signal through the efferent nerves to the effector cells. These cells are located in all types of muscles and glands, which then form a reaction to the stimuli.

225
Q

Different division of PNS

A

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Autonomic Nervous System(ANS)

226
Q

Somatic Nervous System SNS

A

which is the only part of the PNS we can consciously control. It stimulates the skeletal muscles.

227
Q

autonomic nervous system ANS

A

which is the part of the PNS we cannot consciously control, and which stimulates the visceral and cardiac muscle, as well as the glandular tissue.

228
Q

ANS divided 3 parts

A

sympathetic division: which forms the fight or flight reaction to stimuli like emotion, danger, and exercise. It increases respiration and heart rate, decreases digestion and releases stress hormone.
parasympathetic division: which does the opposite of the sympathetic division after the stimuli subsides.
Enteric nervous system(ENS) which is responsible for the digestive system and the processes that go on it it. This system works mostly independently from the CNS, although it can be regulated through the sympathetic and parasympathetic division.

229
Q

Digestive system

A

system of organs in the body that is responsible for the intake and processing of food, as well as discarding the waste products of feeding. Ensures that the body has the necessary nutrients and the energy it needs to function.

230
Q

What organs form the GI tract?

A

The oral cavity, the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intesine.

231
Q

What organs have a role in processing food?

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands,liver,gallbladder,pancreas

232
Q

Mouth

A

Where the digestive system begins: also known as the oral cavity.
also contains the teeth, tongue,salivary glands

233
Q

teeth

A

small organs that cute and grind the food. made out of dentin(resembles bone) covered by enamel. very hard organs and each have their own blood vessels and nerves.

234
Q

Tongue

A

a muscle that is located in the oral cavity beneath and behind the teeth. the tongue contains the taste buds, and it plays a role in moving food around the mouth as it is being processed and moves towards the pharynx when it is time to swallow.

235
Q

Salivary glands

A

charged with producing the saliva, these glands are located around the mouth. There are three pairs of salivary glands, and the saliva they produce serves to lubricates and digest carbohydrates.

236
Q

Pharynx

A

is a tube that enables the passage of food and air further into the body. This structure performs two functions: the pharynx needs the help of a small flap called the epiglottis, which allows the food to pass to the esophagus by covering the opening of the larynx, a structure that carries air into the lungs. When we need to breathe in, the esophagus is closed, so the air passes only into the larynx.

237
Q

Esophagus

A

begins at the pharynx and continues to carry food all teh way to the stomach. Muscular tube and muscles in its wall help push the food down.
Has two rings of muscles called SPHINCTERS.

238
Q

Sphincters

A

Close at the top and at the bottom ends of the esophagus when the food is not passing. the bottom one, when it cannot close entirely and allow the contents of the stomach to enter the esophagus is call HEARTBURN.

239
Q

Stomach

A

round shape organ located on left side of body, just beneath the diaphragm. can be divided into four regions.

240
Q

4 regions of the stomach

A

The cardia- region that connects with the esophagus. it is a transit from the tube-like shape of the esophagus into the sack shape of the rest of to stomach. The cardia is also where the lower sphincter of the esophagus is located.
The body of the stomach- The largest part of the stomach.
The Fundus- Located above the body of the stomach
The Pylorus- a funnel shaped region located beneath the body of the stomach. It controls the passage of the partially digested food further down the GI tract using the pyloric sphincter.

241
Q

4 layers of Stomach tissue

A

Mucosa- the inner most layer, contains the mucous membrane that has a large number of cells which secrete digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. These cells are located within the small pores called the gastric pits. The mucous membrane also secretes a mucous that protects the stomach from its own digestive enzymes. The mucosa also contains some smooth muscle.
The Submucosa- this layer is located around the mucosa, it is made out of connective tissue and it contains the nerves and the blood vessels.
The Muscularis layer- Which as its name says, this structure is made out of these layers of smooth muscle. This layer enables the movement of the stomach.
The Serosa_ this mucosa is the outermost layer. It secretes fluid which keeps it wet, and reduces friction between the stomach and the surrounding organs.

242
Q

Small Intestine

A

continues from the stomach takes up most of the space in the abdomen. It is around 22 feet long.

243
Q

3 parts of the small intestine

A

Duodenum- which is the part of the small intestine that receives the food and chemicals from the stomach.
Jujunum- which continues from the duodenum and is where most of the nutrients are absorbed into the blood.
Ileum- which continues from the jejunum and where the rest of the nutrients are absorbed.

244
Q

Villi

A

made out of smaller microvilli and the villi are where the blood vessels that absorb the nutrients can be found

245
Q

Liver

A

Not part of part of the GI Tract! but performs vital roles for digestion and life itself.

246
Q

what is largest organ in the body after the skin

A

Liver

247
Q

4 divisions of the liver

A 
left lobe, right lobe, caudate lobe( which wraps around the inferior vena cava)
quadrant lobe ( wraps around the gallbladder)
248
Q

The liver is connected to the peritoneum by what four ligaments

A

coronary ligament, left triangular ligament, right triangular ligament, falciform ligament.

249
Q

Liver responsible for?

A

detoxification of blood, storage of nutrients,
production of components of blood plasma. but for the digestive system the role is to produce the bile which then is carried through the bile ducts to the gallbladder.

250
Q

Gallbladder

A

main role is to store bile produced by the liver. release it into the duodenum when fat enters.
Process facilitates the digestion of fat.

251
Q

Pancreas

A

Not part of GI Tract, but has a role in digestion. secretion of enzymes that digest the food and the hormones insulin and glucagon.

252
Q

what controls blood sugar levels

A

insulin and glucagon

253
Q

what is known as the heterocrine gland

A

Pancreas

254
Q

What does the Exocrine tissue in the pancreas produce.

A

Pancreatic amylase- breaks large polysaccharides into smaller sugars.
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase- break down proteins into amino acid subunits.
pancreatic lipase- breaks down large fat molecules into fatty acids and monoglyceride.
Ribonuclease and Deoxyribonuclease- digest nucleic acids

255
Q

Large intestine

A

No digestion actually takes part in the large intestine! it only absorbs water and some leftover vitamins. carries the waste (the feces) to the rectum, where it’s stored until its expelled through the anus.

256
Q

roles of the digestive system

A 
ingest food
secrete fluids and enzymes
mix and move the food through the body
digest the food
absorb the food
remove the waste.

Human Body Science (3 decks)

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