Life: Attitudes towards women Flashcards
When did the emergency government give women the vote? - W
12th Nov 1918
This marked a significant step in women’s rights in the political sphere.
What did pre-war women’s groups primarily fight for? - W
Legal rights more than the vote
What was the turnout of women at the first election? - W
90%
How many women were elected to the Reichstag between 1919 and 1932? - W
112 women
This represented a breakthrough for women’s representation in government.
What does Article 109 state regarding women’s rights? - W
Equal rights for women; marriage as an equal union; women could enter professions
This article was part of the legal framework supporting women’s equality.
What was the main division in the Reichstag regarding women’s legal status? - W
Split on the legal status of women under the Civil Code
This reflects ongoing debates about women’s rights and legal recognition.
What social issues were of concern during this period? - W
Falling birth rate, rising divorce rate, campaign for free contraception, right to abortion under certain circumstances
These issues highlighted the evolving role of women in society and the need for legal reforms.
What was the Weimar government’s policy regarding women and jobs? - W
Women should give up jobs to returning soldiers
This policy reflected societal norms of the time, prioritizing male employment after the war.
What was the percentage of the workforce that were female in the 1925 census? - W
36%
This percentage was almost back to pre-war levels of 34%.
What types of jobs expanded for women after the war? - W
Clerical and shop work
These jobs were traditionally done by women and referred to as ‘white blouse’ jobs.
By how much were women paid less than men in office work on average? - W
33% less
This wage gap highlighted gender inequality in the workplace.
What was the societal view on single women working? - W
Accepted until they were married
This view contributed to opposition against women entering professions requiring long-term training.
What was the number of women qualified as lawyers by 1933? - W
36
This shows the limited representation of women in the legal profession at the time.
How many women doctors were there in 1925, and what was the number by 1933? - W
Over 2,500 in 1925, almost doubled by 1933
This indicates a significant increase in women entering the medical field.
What challenges did married women face if they wanted to work? - W
Practical issues and opposition
These included childcare and the structuring of the school day.
How many women were doing poorly paid work from home in 1925? - W
Over a ¼ of a million
This figure doubled by 1935, reflecting economic necessity.
What percentage of women working in 1925 were in poorly paid manual jobs? - W
Over ½
This highlights the economic challenges faced by women in the workforce.
What was the nature of trade unions in relation to women workers? - W
Strong, male-dominated, opposed women workers
Trade unions were particularly hostile towards ‘double earners’ or married women working.
What economic event led to increased hostility towards working women? - W
The Great Depression
The Great Depression significantly affected employment and societal attitudes towards women in the workforce.
How did unemployment rates compare between men and women during the Great Depression in 1932? - W
46% of men were unemployed compared to 33% of women
The difference in unemployment rates was largely due to women engaging in part-time work.
What did Bruning’s decree on May 30, 1932, allow regarding married women in government service? - W
Dismissal of married women if their husbands earned
This policy reflected the growing pressure to prioritize male employment during economic hardship.
What was the impact of the Great Depression on men’s and women’s ability to press for reforms? - W
Both were unable to press for reforms due to scarce jobs
Economic desperation limited advocacy for better working conditions.
True or False: Women experienced a steeper level of unemployment than men during the Great Depression. - W
False
Women faced a less steep level of unemployment primarily because they were cheaper to employ.
What was a common reason for the dismissal of women in privately owned industries during the Great Depression? - W
They were often the last hired
This practice led to higher job insecurity for women in the workforce.
What characterized the ‘new women’ in the Weimar period? - W
They were young, educated, and unmarried women seeking independence
The term ‘new women’ refers to a social change during the Weimar period where traditional female roles were challenged.
In which industries did many new women find work? - W
They found work largely in ‘white blouse’ industries in offices and shops
This indicates a shift away from manual or industrial labour, reflecting the changing roles of women in society.
How did new women change their appearance and behaviour? - W
They wore more revealing clothes, cut their hair short, smoked, and drank
This behaviour mirrored the ‘flappers’ in the USA, showcasing a desire for liberation.
What aspect of personal life did many new women take advantage of? - W
They took advantage of contraception to enjoy sexual freedom.
This was a significant change in attitudes towards sexuality and reproductive rights.
Where were most new women based during the Weimar period? - W
They were mostly city-based and part of the racy city culture of the 1920s
This urban lifestyle contributed to their independence and new social norms.
How were new women perceived by politicians and the media? - W
They were criticized as immoral and urged to marry and settle down
This reflects the societal pushback against changing gender roles.
What industries embraced the image of new women? - W
The advertising and film industries embraced and produced glorified images of them
These images contributed to the cultural narrative surrounding new women.
What did new women aspire to in terms of lifestyle? - W
They aspired to live up to glorified images of emancipated, achieving girls.
This aspiration often conflicted with traditional expectations of women.
What challenges did new women face in the workforce? - W
They faced wage discrimination and sexual discrimination
These challenges highlighted the ongoing inequalities women encountered despite their new roles.
What was a common outcome for many new women regarding marriage? - W
Many settled down to marriage, hoping for a more equal partnership
However, they were often unlikely to achieve the equality they sought.
By 1926, how many female deputies were in the Reichstag? - W
32 - a good start, but women were still hugely under represented although this was the highest representation as a national level.
What did the conservative values of the German legal system make illegal for women? - W
Abortion
Contraception
In 1929, how many members did the BDF (largest, more influential women’s group) have in Germany? - W
900,000
What did the BDF campaign for? - W
Women to play a leading role in ‘nurturing professions’ such as teaching, nursing and social work.
- Jobs for women tied with stereotypes surrounding female roles.
Where were improvements in life for women mainly situated? - W
In urban areas - rural areas remained largely conservative.
How did the SPD and KPD support women’s rights? - W
- Supported legal protection to domestic servants and demanded increased maternity benefits
- Some members of the KPD tried to get the same legal rights for unmarried mothers as married mothers
Prior to WW1, what was made legal and regulated by a Morals Police? - W
Prostitution
The Morals Police made the prostitutes observe curfews, work in licensed brothels and in some instances live in gated streets.
By 1919, who took control of dealing with sex workers? - W
Female social workers - worked more on helping women leave prostitution with financial support.
When was prostitution decriminalised? What did this mean? - W
1927
- Women working as prostitutes could no longer be punished and care workers had a much greater role nationally in providing more care and support for women in this line of wokr.
What did political propaganda tend to appeal to women for? - W
Their roles as wives and mothers, instead of asking for their vote on the basis of improving their own lives.
What was the primary expectation of women in Nazi Germany regarding procreation? - N
Producing the Aryan race
The Nazis encouraged ‘assortative mating’ to help women find suitable partners.
What roles were women expected to fulfill according to Nazi ideology? - N
- Mother
- Homemaker
- Cook
Women had a significant domestic role and were responsible for 80% of domestic shopping.
What was the Nazi view on women’s political roles? - N
Women had no political role
Some Nazis believed ‘female emancipation’ was a Jewish conspiracy.
What phrase summarized Nazi attitudes towards women? - N
Kinder, Kuche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church)
The emphasis was much less on ‘Kirche’ due to Hitler’s disdain for the Church.
According to Nazi ideology, were the different ‘natural spheres’ for men and women? - N
- Men: leadership, building civilization, defending the Aryan race
- Women: nurturing, economic role, racial role
Women were seen as responsible for bearing the next Aryan generation.
What was expected of women in terms of their economic role? - N
- Leave work
- Be responsible consumers
- Reduce waste
- Avoid Jewish-owned shops
Economic role was tied to their domestic responsibilities.
True or False: Women in Nazi Germany were encouraged to participate in politics. - N
False
Some Nazis argued that women’s involvement in the Reichstag was damaging.
What were women expected to conform to regarding their appearance? - N
Women were expected to be beautiful and to conform to Nazi ideals regarding appearance.
What financial incentives were given to encourage women to leave their jobs and return to the home to give birth to and raise children? - N
In June 1933, interest-free loans of RM600 were made available to young married women who left work.
What other policies were adopted by the Nazis to encourage birth rates? - N
- Increasing family allowances
- Reduction of income tax dependent on the no. of children a woman had - families with six or more children paid no income tax.
- Maternity benefits increased
- Anti-abortion laws were enforced more rigidly
- Contraception restricted
- Nazi propaganda glorified motherhood
What rewards were introduced for mothers to encourage birth rates? - N
The Honour Cross of the German Mother: it awarded in bronze, silver and gold, which was dependent upon the number of children a woman had.
What women’s union established Mother Schools to encourage birth rates? - N
The National Socialist Women’s Union
What was the purpose of Nazi policies to encourage higher birth rates? - N
These policies were a response to the Nazi’s fear that “racially inferior” Slavs and Jews were having more children than “Aryans”.
Were the Nazis’ birth rate policies successful? Why? - N
- Birth rates increased in the 1930s, although it is difficult to tell how far this was a response to Nazi policies.
- Some policies led to a decline in birth rate.
- For example, the Nazi agricultural policy, which led to a decline in farm incomes and stripped women of their right to inherit farmland.
- This meant that women farm labourers worked the longest hours of any group in Germany and as a result dropped the birth rate within the farming population.
What was the National Socialist Women’s Union (NSF)? Why was it established and what was its purpose? - N
It was a union established to attract female support for the Nazi Party.
It was subsequently used to communicate the Nazi message to women and its leader was a powerful public speaker and became very well known in the Nazi period.
What did the NSF advocate for? - N
They argued that women should place no part in politics and have their prime duty as having children and looking after the home.
True or False: The NSF played a significant role in government. - N
False
In spite of their high-profile nature, it did not play a role in formulating government policy.
What was the Mother Schooling Programme and why was it introduced? - N
The Mothering Schooling Programme was introduced because the Nazi believed that women needed to re-learn their natural skills and role as mothers.
According to the Nazis, the WR had corrupted perceptions of women.
By 1936, how many Mother Schools were there in Germany? - N
150
How many students attended Mother Schools in 1936 alone? - N
670,000
What did the Mother Schooling Programme include in its curriculum? - N
The curriculum included nutrition, cooking, clothes making, shopping tips and “racial biology”.
For example, women were encouraged to buy German apples rather than exotic fruit such as bananas in order to ensure they supported the domestic economy.
What did ‘The Law for Encouragement of Marriage (1933)’ provide for married couples? - N
A RM1,000 loan to all newly married couples which ¼ would be written off after the birth of a child.
Why did Hitler believe men should marry ‘stupid women’? - N
They were less likely to interfere with the husband’s life and work as they wouldn’t be able to understand it.
What were ‘SS wives’ and why did Himmler put this policy in place? - N
Himmler argued that blonde hair and blue eyes weren’t enough to guarantee racial fitness and he encouraged SS officers to marry women who had won the Reich Sports Medal as this would be proof of their physical and therefore racial fitness.
What were Reich Bride Schools and how did they link to SS wives? - N
Himmler decreed that SS officers could only marry women who had completed a course at a Reich Bride School.
Reich Bride Schools was a course that taught:
- Ironing
- Interior design
- Gardening
- SS uniform care
- Childcare
What was the purpose of the Lebensborn programme? - N
Himmler established the Lebensborn programme as a way of increasing the number of Aryan babies.
How did the Lebensborn programme look to achieve their purpose? - N
- Provided female sexual partners for SS officers
- Offered free maternity care in SS clinics and adoption services for pregnant Aryan women who were unmarried and who would have terminated their pregnancy without the support of the SS
- Offered free maternity care and absolute privacy for the mistresses of the SS officers who became pregnant as a result of extra-marital sex with those officers.
- During WW2, SS officers were instructed to abduct children with Aryan features from occupied territories who would then be “Aryanised” by German foster parents.
What did the Nazis believe the ideal Aryan woman should look like? - N
- Natural in the sense that she refused to drink or smoke.
- They should dress in the “German Style” which included wearing Germanic hairstyles such as the Gretchen braids.
- Body physically suitable for childbearing, praising “voluptuous” bodies and discouraging thin figures.
How did the cosmetics industry help women in the Third Reich to achieve the ‘natural’ look? - N
- Tanning parlours
- Deodorant
- Hormone cream: helped women develop larger breasts.
- Khasana Cosmetics: developed a range of “natural products” and “discrete cosmetics” designed to create the “natural look.
What was the ‘German style’? - N
- Anti-Jewish: German women should resist the impulse to buy products such as cosmetics, perfume and fashionable clothes as these desires served Jewish businesses, not the German nation.
- Anti-French: German women should not try to imitate French “sophistication” because he argued it was unnatural.
- Anti-American: Goebbels argued Hollywood promoted “American sexiness” which was artificial and encouraged women to become “man-murdering vamps” rather than submissive wives.
How did some senior Nazis justify the production and distribution of pornography? - N
Senior Nazis believed that some forms of female nudity were natural and healthy.
- The Black Corps, the official SS Officer’s magazine, regularly contained pictures of young naked women.
- They were photographed on natural settings like farms, fields or rivers.
- The pictures were accompanied by quotes by Hitler regarding beauty.
They also contained pictures of American women, including black women, to demonstrate what the Nazis considered to be the difference between healthy German nudity and unnatural US pornography.
What advice did the ‘Bureau for Beauty’ give? - N
Notorious womaniser, Robert Lay, head of the DAF, set up the Bureau for Beauty that published advice such as:
- Charts for ideal shapes for eyelashes, eyebrows and cheekbones
- Advice on how to achieve perfect features through use of cosmetics
- Advice on how to use hair products to help heighten blondeness
How was prostitution viewed and legislated against under the Nazis? - N
1933: Morals Police began mass arrests of women suspected of sex work.
- More than 3,200 women were arrested in Hamburg alone, in spite of the fact prostitution was no longer illegal.
- The Morals Police reinstated official brothels and gated streets, banning women known as prostitutes from large areas of the town.
- Care Officers fought back by committing women working in the sex trade to hospitals or other caring institutions.
What was ‘Salon Kitty’? - N
The SS’s own brothel in Berlin which served to provide sex for high-ranking Nazis, including the owner Heydrich himself, and to provide secret information to the Nazi government as all of the rooms were bugged.
What action did the Nazis take against women suspected of prostitution? - N
They would be classified “morally delinquent” “mentally weak” “asocial”.
Care Officers or Morals Police could deny them access to welfare or health services on the basis that they should be prevented from living and breathing for the good of the race.
How were those suspected of ‘sexual deviancy’ treated? - N
The Nazis carried out a campaign of sterilisation against women too unfit to breed which was a dangerous procedure that had high death rates.
They were also sent to SS camps who were all assigned to “extermination through work”.
When were women banned from professional posts as teachers, doctors and civil servants? - N
1933
Why were girls discouraged from going to university? - N
To ensure that they were focused on the home.
What does the Basic Law (1949) assert regarding women? - FRG
Women were equal
What family structure did successive governments in the FRG favour? - FRG
Male-dominated family structure
Who were typically the breadwinners in the family structure favoured by FRG governments? - FRG
Men
What role did wives typically have in the family structure favoured by FRG governments? - FRG
Staying home
What decade saw active feminist movements in the FRG? - FRG
1970s
What was the progress towards equality like despite feminist movements in the 1970s? - FRG
Slow
What institution was established in 1980 to promote greater opportunities for women? - FRG
National Office for Women’s Affairs
What roles were women encouraged to participate in during politics? - FRG
Clerical and hospitality-type duties
Women were not encouraged to engage in more significant political roles.
What percentage of Bundestag representatives were women in 1972? - FRG
5.8%
This reflects the limited political involvement of women at the time.
What percentage of Bundestag representatives were women in 1987? - FRG
15.4%
The increase indicates slow progress in women’s political participation.
Why did women lack noticeable political outlets? - FRG
The CDU/CSU favoured business interests and the SPD gained support from male-dominated trade unions.
What was the impact of the emergence of the Green Party in the 1980s on women’s political involvement? - FRG
Provided more widespread opportunities for women involvement
The Green Party’s emergence marked a shift in political engagement for women.
What key political commitment did feminists pressure the Green Party to include? - FRG
Abortion reform
This commitment helped elevate women’s rights in political discourse.
How did the West German Green Party contribute to women’s rights in the mid-1980s? - FRG
Brought women’s rights to the fore
The party’s actions highlighted women’s issues in the political arena.
What was favoured in terms of employment despite the Basic Law? - FRG
Male employment
The Basic Law was intended to assert equal rights, yet societal norms favoured male employment.
What was the government’s goal during the immediate post-war period? - FRG
Ease returning military personnel into a social structure they recognised - this structure involved traditional roles with women primarily in the home.
How was women’s war work perceived after the war? - FRG
As temporary - the expectation was that women would return to domestic roles following the war.
What did the ‘rubble women’ represent in post-war society? - FRG
Women who refused to give up their jobs
This was because they had played a crucial role in keeping families together and rebuilding the country.
What was the increase in women’s employment from 1950 to 1970? - FRG
44.4% in 1950 to 50% in 1970
This increase occurred during the economic miracle, highlighting a shift in labour needs.
Why did many women work during the economic miracle? - FRG
To maintain an affluent lifestyle
However, many husbands viewed their wives’ employment as a necessity, not as something to be desired.
What percentage of the workforce in hospitals were women in the 1970s? - FRG
75%
Despite being predominant in caring professions, women’s representation in higher roles was low.
What percentage of physicians were women in the 1970s? - FRG
4%
This statistic reflects the gender disparity in medical professions.
What percentage of university professors were women in the 1970s? - FRG
Less than 5%
This low representation indicates significant gender inequality in academia.
What was the % of women’s average salary compared to men in the 1970s? - FRG
65-78% of men’s salaries
This disparity existed even when women performed the same jobs as men.
What role was established within the National Office for Women’s Affairs? - FRG
Equality officers
Their purpose was to address issues of unequal treatment in federal government-controlled areas.
In what areas were issues of unequal treatment addressed? - FRG
Public sector employment
This was one of the areas where the federal government had some control over equality measures.
What responsibility did women have in the early years of the FRG? - FRG
Help rebuild the country while maintaining family responsibilities
Why did wives tend to be more assertive in their marriages post-war? - FRG
Wives underwent experiences during bombing and occupation that their soldier husbands hadn’t.
Men expected to return with women still maintaining in the domestic realm.
What was the trend in divorce rates from 1960 to 1990? - FRG
Increased from 49,000 to 123,000
What significant legal change occurred in 1977 regarding divorce? - FRG
No-guilt divorce law was passed: granted divorces for marriages than had broken down irreconcilably without having to be on the usual grounds of infidelity or physical abuse.
What was the economic consideration for alimony after divorce? - FRG
Paid to the partner who reared children to help establish independent income and not be disadvantaged by having to give up a career to look after a family.
What did Article 218 of the 1949 Basic Law do? - FRG
It criminalised abortion
How did wealth affect access to abortion in the early years of the FRG? - FRG
Wealthy could afford safe illegal abortions; poorer faced unsterile methods
What was the CDU/CSU’s stance on abortion? - FRG
Opposed on religious and moral grounds
What was the outcome of the 1971 abortion law introduced by the Brandt’s government? - FRG
Legalised abortion within the first 3 months, but declared illegal by the Federal Constitutional Court
What did the 1976 Indication Law allow? - FRG
Abortion within the first 12 weeks based on ‘social indicators’ like psychological or medical conditions.
How did feminists view the 1976 Indication Law? - FRG
Too restrictive compared to other abortion laws in western countries or the GDR
Who is a notable feminist whose work resonated with the women of the FRG? - FRG
Betty Frieden - an influential feminist in the USA.
What did feminists demand in relation to the Basic Law? - FRG
Full equality
This demand highlighted the disconnection between legal assertions from the Basic Law and the reality of stereotyping women as wives and mothers, unequal employment opportunities etc.
What were some issues that became key topics for feminists? - FRG
Abortion and the right to oral contraception
These issues were central to the feminist movement.
What kind of publications did feminists begin to produce? - FRG
Radical magazines
An example is the magazine ‘Emma’.
True or False: Some feminists often flaunted their sexual preferences in public. - FRG
True
In 1972, what % of women represented the Bundestag? - FRG
5.8%
By 1987, this was still only 15.4%.
