Liberalism- short answers Flashcards
Distinguish between positive and negative freedom
- Negative freedom- free from external constraints- private sphere protected from public intrusions. Freedom of speech, private ownership. Law is an obstacle to freedom- only limited when someone deliberately prevents us from doing something. Hobbes “silence of the laws”
- Classical Liberalism.. results in MINIMAL STATE- Locke “nightwatchmens state” govt only responsible for domestic order and personal security. Modern Liberals argue it creates huge inequalities. T.H. Green- merely removes external constraints- business- negative freedom justifies ability to hire cheapest labour.
-Positive freedom- freedom to achieve and having the power to realise one’s own potential. Personal development and self realisation. Positive freedom also recognises liberty can be threatened by social disadvantage. Free from social evils- Beveridge “five giants”- want, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness.
-Modern liberalism- freedom limited by social disadvantage- individuals can’t realise own potential- ENABLING STATE. Welfare is there to help people achieve on their own merits- freeing individuals from poverty…
Neo-liberals criticise- welfare and high taxation compromise essence of freedom.. Hayek “state intervention has impinged on the functioning of the free market which diminishes freedom”
Explain the link between liberalism and individualism.
Individualism- belief in the primacy or supreme importance of the human individual over any social group or collective body. Individuals- unique identities and qualities, equal moral and political status. Central principle of liberal ideology.
-18th/19th century- thinkers influenced by an ENLIGHTENMENT belief in universal reason which was a way of releasing individuals from superstition to logical enquiry. Thinker- Bentham- strengthened liberalism faith in the individual- led to belief that human beings are rational thinking creatures- capable of defining and pursing their own interests.
Kant expressed a belief in the dignity and equal worth of human beings in his conception of individuals as “ends in themselves”
-Atomised view of the individual- society as a collection of individuals, each seeking to satisfy his or her own needs. = belief that society itself does not exist- collection of self-sufficient individuals.
Macpherson- “possessive individualism” which regards the individual as “the proprietor of his own capacities, owing nothing to society for them”. Free to conduct whatever self-regarding actions they see fit as long as they do not cause harm to others- nightwatchmens state.
- Modern liberals- developmental individualism. Mill “higher” and “lower” pleasures- promote those that develop individuals intellectual and moral sensibilities. Developmental individualism- human flourishing rather than crude satisfaction of interests.
- Equality of opportunity- Rawls- liberty is consistent for all in society. Each individual given opportunity to succeed on own merits.
-Liberal acceptance of toleration is rooted to principle of individualism and that human beings are separate and unique. Mill- wider justification for toleration- toleration is a primary guarantee of personal autonomy and condition for moral self-development. Individualism underpins other liberal values.
Why and how have liberals supported the fragmentation of government power?
-Absolute power corrupts. Power corrupts because human beings are self-seeking and use any form of power for their own interests. Egoism and that power leads to corruption is expressed in Lord Acton’s writing “power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely” = power needs to be limited.
-Fear arbitrary govt where civil liberties and primacy of individual is sacrificed. Eg. persecution of Catholic minority in Ireland- govt acted in arbitrary manner.
Goes against Mill’s view on toleration- fragmentation of political power ensures all theories are tested in free competition against rival ideas- filter out bad ones. Bicameralism?
-Tocqueville- Tyranny of the majority” individual liberties and minority rights are destroyed- therefore support fragmentation of political power.
Madison- best defence against majoritarianism is a network of checks and balances- govt responsible to competing minorities.
- How? constitutional acts and doctrines.
Internal fragmentation- Montesquieu- doctrine of separation of powers. Legislative, executive and judicial powers of govt exercised by 3 independent institutions.
Cabinet govt- checks power of PM
Bicameralism- checks and scrutinises power of each legislative chamber.
Written constitution- US constitution codifies the major power and responsibility of govt
On what grounds have liberals defended constitutionalism?
Constitutionalism- narrow sense- practice of limited govt brought about by the existence of a constitution.
Broadly- set of political values and aspirations that reflects desire to protect liberty through internal and external checks.
-Defending liberty- constitutionalism is an important mechanism in protecting the sphere of individual liberty because it limits govts ability to enroach on individual.
Liberal democracy- bill of rights- legal definition of relationship between individual and state.
First 10 amendments of US constitution list individuals rights.
-Promotes toleration and ensures freedom of expression and association. Fragmenting govt power by bicameralism it ensures Mill’s view on toleration. -all theories tested and rational debate will filter out bad ideas.
-Ensuring a check of power on state. Montesquieu- “power should be a check on power.” Achieved by internal constraints- disperse political power among institutions.
Liberal systems- internal fragmentation- doctrine of separation of powers.
-Fear unchecked power- introduce external and legal constraints.
Written constitution codifies powers and responsibilities of govt- constitutes higher law.
UK liberals- stress importance of statue law in checking power of govt through rule of law.
On what grounds have liberals supported democracy?
-extending participation has numerous of educational benefits.
Mill- central virtue of democracy is that it promotes the “highest and mos harmonious” development of human capabilities. Enhanced understanding, strengthened sensibilities and achieve a higher level of personal development.
Developmental democracy holds democracy to be primarily an educational experience.
Malle- participation in the democratic process further develops the individuals character and self-worth.
-defends freedom & citizens must have means of protecting themselves from encroachment by govt.
Locke- limited theory of protective democracy- voting rights extended to the propertied who could defend their natural rights against govt.
Eg. if govt through taxation possesses power to take property, citizens entitled to protect themselves by controlling composition of legislature.
-Democracy is the only way individuals can be liberated and free to express their own self-interest.
Democracy= only system where individualism can at least be developed as opposed to collective desires of dictatorship.
Utilitarian theorist- Bentham- developed notion of democracy as a form of protection for the individual into a case for universal suffrage.
Universal suffrage is the only way of promoting “the greatest happiness for the greatest number” -express own self interest through democracy.
-Draw on pluralist ideas- best way of maintaining equilibrium within complex and fluid modern societies.
Democracy gives a wide variety of competing groups a voice- integrate into political system=stability
Distinguish between economic and social liberalism.
Economic liberalism…
-late 18th/early 19th century- work of Adam Smith. Thought of economy as a market- inter related- operates according to the wishes and decisions of individuals.
Relationships within the free market between employers and employees, buyers and sellers are voluntary- made by self interested individuals.
Classical liberals support this because although individuals are self interested- economy operate according to market forces- promote economic prosperity and well being.
-Free market ideas associated with economic liberalism became the economic orthodoxy in 19th century.
Laissez faire economics- state had no economic role, leave economy to business people to act as they please.
Adam Smith “invisible hand of the market”
Laissex faire ideas- oppose all factory legislation, eg. restriction on child employment. Unrestrained pursuit of profit= benefit.
Social Liberalism…
20th century- modern liberals advocate this on the basis of equality of opportunity. If groups are disadvantaged state has the responsibility to remove this to establish equal chances.
Defined by growth of state intervention- Beveridge report- 5 giants- want, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness. obstruct freedom.
Took the form of social welfare- support for citizens to overcome poverty through social security, disease by NHS, ignorance and idleness through education system
-Further developed with social democratic liberalism. Distinguished by support for relative social equality.
Rawls- defence of redistribution and expansion of welfare state on idea “equality as fairness”.
If citizens aware of their position in society where would view an egalitarian society fairer than an in egalitarian one. Desire to avoid poverty greater than wealth.
Difference principle- social and economic inequalities should be arranged to benefit least well off
