Liberalism

Question 1

Liberalism: core beliefs

Answer 1

Individualism

freedom

reason

justice

toleration

Question 2

Absolutism

Answer 2

A form of government in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual or small group, in particular, an absolute monarchy.

Question 3

Feudalism

Answer 3

A system of agrarian based production that is characterized by fixed social hierarchies and a rigid pattern of obligations.

Question 4

Divine right

Answer 4

The doctrine that earthly rulers are chosen by God and thus wield unchallengeable authority; divine right is a defence for monarchical absolutism.

Question 5

Classical liberalism

Answer 5

A tradition within liberalism that seeks to maximize the realm of unconstrained individual action, typically by establishing a minimal state and a reliance on market economics.

Question 6

Modern liberalism

Answer 6

A tradition within liberalism that provides (in contrast to classical liberalism) a qualified endorsement for social and economic intervention as a means of promoting personal development.

Question 7

Enlightenment, the

Answer 7

An intellectual movement that reached its height in the eighteenth century and challenged traditional beliefs in religion, politics and learning in general in the name of reason and progress.

Question 8

Atomism

Answer 8

A belief that society is made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals, or atoms, rather than social groups.

Question 9

Freedom (or liberty)

Answer 9

The ability to think or act as one wishes, a capacity that can be associated with the individual, a social group or a nation

Question 10

Human nature

Answer 10

The essential and innate character of all human beings: what they owe to nature

Question 11

Paternalism

Answer 11

Authority exercised from above for the guidance and support of those below, modelled on the relationship between fathers and children

Question 12

Negative freedom

Answer 12

The absence of external restrictions or constraints on the individual, allowing freedom of choice.

Question 13

Positive freedom

Answer 13

Self-mastery or self-realization; the achievement of autonomy or the development of human capacities.

Question 14

Justice

Answer 14

A moral standard of fairness and impartiality; social justice is the notion of a fair or justifiable distribution of wealth and rewards in society.

Question 15

Equality

Answer 15

The principle that human beings are of identical worth or are entitled to be treated in the same way; equality can have widely differing applications.

Question 16

Meritocracy

Answer 16

Literally, rule by those with merit, merit being intelligence plus effort; a society in which social position is determined exclusively by ability and hard work.

Question 17

Pluralism

Answer 17

A belief in diversity or choice, or the theory that political power is or should be widely and evenly dispersed

Question 18

Toleration

Answer 18

Forbearance; a willingness to accept views or actions with which one is in disagreement.

Question 19

Autonomy

Answer 19

Literally, self-government; the ability to control one’s own destiny by virtue of enjoying independence from external influences.

Question 20

Law

Answer 20

Established and public rules of social conduct, backed up by the machinery of the state the police, courts and prisons.

Question 21

Government

Answer 21

The machinery through which collective decisions are made on behalf of the state, usually comprising a legislature, executive and judiciary.

Question 22

State

Answer 22

An association that establishes sovereign power within a defined territorial area, usually possessing a monopoly of coercive power.

Question 23

Social contract

Answer 23

A (hypothetical) agreement among individuals through which they form a state in order to escape from the disorder and chaos of the ‘state of nature’.

Question 24

State of nature

Answer 24

A pre-political society characterized by unrestrained freedom and the absence of established authority.

Question 25

Democracy

Answer 25

Rule by the people; democracy implies both popular participation and government in the public interest, and can take a wide variety of forms

Question 26

Written constitution

Answer 26

A single authoritative document that defines the duties, powers and functions of government institutions and so constitutes ‘higher’ law.

Question 27

Bill of rights

Answer 27

A constitutional document that specifies the rights and freedoms of the individual and so defines the relationship between the state and its citizens.

Question 28

Rule of law

Answer 28

The principle that all conduct and behaviour, of private citizens and government officials, should conform to a framework of law.

Question 29

Federalism

Answer 29

A territorial distribution of power based on the sharing of sovereignty between central (usually national) bodies and regional or provincial ones.

Question 30

Separation of powers

Answer 30

The principle that legislative, executive and judicial power should be separated through the construction of three independent branches of government.

Question 31

Civil society

Answer 31

A realm of autonomous associations and groups, formed by private citizens and enjoying independence from the government; civil society includes businesses, clubs, families and so on.

Question 32

Civil liberty

Answer 32

The private sphere of existence, belonging to the citizen, not to the state; freedom from government.

Question 33

Majoritarianism

Answer 33

A belief in majority rule; majoritarianism implies either that the majority dominates the minority, or that the minority should defer to the judgement of the majority.

Question 34

Consensus

Answer 34

A broad agreement on fundamental principles that allows for disagreement on matters of emphasis or detail.

Question 35

Consent

Answer 35

Assent or permission; in politics, usually an agreement to be governed or ruled.

Question 36

Natural rights

Answer 36

God-given rights that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable (they cannot be taken away).

Question 37

Utility

Answer 37

Use-value; in economics, utility describes the satisfaction that is gained from the consumption of material goods and services.

Question 38

Mercantilism

Answer 38

A school of economic thought that emphasizes the state’s role in managing international trade and delivering prosperity.

Question 39

Market

Answer 39

A system of commercial exchange between buyers and sellers, controlled by impersonal economic forces: ‘market forces’.

Question 40

Laissez-faire

Answer 40

Literally, ‘leave to do’; the doctrine that economic activity should be entirely free from government interference.

Question 41

Free market

Answer 41

The principle or policy of unfettered market competition, free from government interference.

Question 42

Market fundamentalism

Answer 42

An absolute faith in the market, reflecting the belief that the market mechanism offers solutions to all economic and social problems.

Question 43

Individuality

Answer 43

Self-fulfilment achieved through the realization of an individual’s distinctive or unique identity or qualities; what distinguishes one person from all others.

Question 44

Altruism

Answer 44

Concern for the interests and welfare of others, based either on enlightened self-interest or a belief in a common humanity.

Question 45

Welfare state

Answer 45

A state that takes primary responsibility for the social welfare of its citizens, discharged through a range of social-security, health, education and other services.

Question 46

Transnational corporation

Answer 46

A company that controls economic activity in two or more countries, developing corporate strategies and processes that transcend national borders.

Question 47

Republican liberalism

Answer 47

A form of liberalism that highlights the benefits of republican government and, in particular, emphasizes the link between democracy and peace.

Question 48

Commercial liberalism

Answer 48

A form of liberalism that emphasizes the economic and international benefits of free trade, leading to mutual benefit and general prosperity, as well as peace among states.

Question 49

Free trade

Answer 49

A system of trade between states not restricted by tariffs or other forms of protectionism.

Question 50

Humanitarian intervention

Answer 50

Military intervention in the affairs of another state that is carried out in pursuit of humanitarian rather than strategic objectives.

Question 51

Human development

Answer 51

A standard of human well-being that reflects people’s ability to lead fulfilled and creative lives, taking into account factors such as life expectancy, education, ecological sustainability and gender equality.

Question 52

John Locke (1632–1704)

Answer 52

An English philosopher and politician, Locke was a consistent opponent of absolutism and is often portrayed as the philosopher of the 1688 ‘Glorious Revolution’ (which established a constitutional monarchy in England). Using social contract theory and accepting that, by nature, humans are free and equal, Locke upheld constitutionalism, limited government and the right of revolution, but the stress he placed on property rights prevented him from endorsing political equality or democracy in the modern sense. Locke’s foremost political work is Two Treatises of Government (1690).

Question 53

Adam Smith (1723–90)

Answer 53

A Scottish economist and philosopher, Smith is usually seen as the founder of the ‘dismal science’. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), he developed a theory of motivation that tried to reconcile human self-interestedness with unregulated social order. Smith’s most famous work, The Wealth of Nations (1776), was the first systematic attempt to explain the workings of the economy in market terms. Although he is sometimes portrayed as a free-market theorist, Smith was nevertheless aware of the limitations of laissez-faire.

Question 54

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

Answer 54

A German philosopher, Kant’s ‘critical’ philosophy holds that knowledge is not merely an aggregate of sense impressions; it depends on the conceptual apparatus of human understanding. Kant’s political thought was shaped by the central importance of morality. He believed that the law of reason dictates categorical imperatives, the most important of which is the obligation to treat others as ‘ends’, and never only as ‘means’. Kant’s most important works include Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Metaphysics of Morals (1785).

Question 55

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)

Answer 55

A US political philosopher and statesman, Jefferson was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and later served as the third president of the USA (1801–09). Jefferson advocated a democratic form of agrarianism that sought to blend a belief in rule by a natural aristocracy with a commitment to limited government and laissez-faire, though he also exhibited sympathy for social reform. In the USA, ‘Jeffersonianism’ stands for resistance to strong central government and a stress on individual freedom and responsibility, and states’ rights.

Question 56

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

Answer 56

A British philosopher, legal reformer and founder of utilitarianism, Bentham developed a moral and philosophical system based on the belief that human beings are rationally self-interested creatures, or utility maximizers. Using the principle of general utility – ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ – he advanced a justification for laissez-faire economics, constitutional reform and, in later life, political democracy. Bentham’s key works include A Fragment on Government (1776) and An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789).

Question 57

James Madison (1751–1836)

Answer 57

A US statesman and political theorist, Madison played a major role in writing the US Constitution and served as the fourth president of the USA (1809–17). Madison was a leading proponent of pluralism and divided government, urging the adoption of federalism, bicameralism and the separation of powers as the basis of US government. Madisonianism thus implies a strong emphasis on checks and balances as the principal means of resisting tyranny. His best-known political writings are his contributions to The Federalist (1787–8).

Question 58

John Stuart Mill (1806–73)

Answer 58

A British philosopher, economist and politician, Mill’s varied and complex work straddles the divide between classical and modern forms of liberalism. His opposition to collectivist tendencies and traditions was firmly rooted in nineteenth-century principles, but his emphasis on the quality of individual life, reflected in a commitment to individuality, as well as his sympathy for causes such as female suffrage and workers’ cooperatives, looked forward to later developments. Mill’s major writings include On Liberty (1859), Utilitarianism (1861) and Considerations on Representative Government (1861).

Question 59

T. H. (Thomas Hill) Green (1836–82)

Answer 59

A British philosopher and social theorist, Green highlighted the limitations of early liberal doctrines and in particular laissez-faire. Influenced by Aristotle and Hegel, Green argued that humans are by nature social creatures, a position that helped liberalism to reach an accommodation with welfarism and social justice. His idea of ‘positive’ freedom had a major influence on the emergence of so-called ‘new liberalism’ in the UK. His chief works include Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (1879–80) and Prolegomena to Ethics (1883).

Question 60

John Rawls (1921–2002)

Answer 60

A US political philosopher, Rawls used a form of social contract theory to reconcile liberal individualism with the principles of redistribution and social justice. In his major work, A Theory of Justice (1970), he developed the notion of ‘justice as fairness’, based on the belief that behind a ‘veil of ignorance’ most people would accept that the liberty of each should be compatible with a like liberty for all, and that social inequality is only justified if it works to the benefit of the poorest in society.