liberalism Flashcards
1
Q
John Locke’s views on human nature
A
- humans: rational, guided by self-interest
- rationalism: innate quality for individuals - individuals develop best when left alone free to pursue their own happiness
- egotistical individualism: humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of selfish interests but as humans are rational this doesn’t lead to conflict to others
- e.g. social contract - governing must have consent of governed e.g. Fixed Term Parliament Act 2011
2
Q
John Locke’s views on the state
A
- must be representative, based on consent of governed
- night-watchman role, justified by negative freedom
- state intervention only justified to prevent actions that are harmful to others - allows individuals to follow the good life
- state of nature: humans born in a state of equality and freedom with natural rights to life, liberty and property. ‘State of law’ resolves disputes more efficiently than under state of nature
- e.g. free market policies - deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
3
Q
John Locke’s views on society
A
- society predates the state: ‘natural’ societies with natural laws and rights
- individuals self-seeking and independent but constrained by rational nature - they respect the rights of others so their own rights are respected in turn
- e.g. education policies prioritize access to quality education, promote critical thinking skills & encourage engagement - highlights role of education in cultivating an enlightened society e.g. Pupil Premium - funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools
4
Q
John Locke’s views on the economy
A
- state policy should respect ‘natural right’ to private property & arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade & resources
- state’s only role is to protect property & enforce contracts
- market should be left to guide rational individuals
- e.g. free market/trade - no subsidies, taxes or regulations - e.g. deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
5
Q
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on human nature
A
- rationalism defines both genders: the Enlightenment’s optimistic analysis of human nature should apply to all humans
- 18th century England, society & state implied women were not rational and thus denied them individual freedom & formal equality
- e.g. women not allowed land ownership or paid employment & sacrificed little individualism to become wives with little legal protection against domestic violence & no divorce laws
- e.g. Domestic Abuse Act 2021
6
Q
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on the state
A
- the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights
- formal equality must be accorded to all individuals - supported French Revolution’s emphasis upon ‘citizens’ and its indifference to gender differences
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action - promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
7
Q
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on society
A
`- society ‘infantilised’ women, thus stifling female individualism
- by fettering female individualism, England was limiting their stock intelligence, wisdom and morality
- “such arrangements are not conditions where reason and progress may prosper”
- e.g. political empowerment through gender quotas & all-women shortlists used by Labour and Lib Dems
8
Q
Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on the economy
A
- a free market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women
- aligned with Adam Smith’s laissez-faire economics
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action - promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
9
Q
John Stuart Mill’s views on human nature
A
- human nature is not fixed - forever progressing to a higher level - liberty was not just a ‘natural right’ but the engine of ongoing human development
- focus on what individuals could become - known as ‘individuality’ or ‘developmental individualism’
- harm principle: state should tolerate all actions & opinions unless it harms the liberty of other individuals - ‘self-regarding :)’ vs ‘other regarding :(‘ actions
- negative freedom: freedom was the absence of restraint
- e.g. civil liberties protection such as freedom of speech, assembly and religion are all codified in the first amendment of the US Constitution
10
Q
John Stuart Mill’s views on the state
A
- consensus via education: education provides the means through which the interests of society’s minorities can be reconciled
- the principle of ‘government by consent’ would be compromised if the interests of some liberal-minded individuals were denied by the votes of most uneducated voters - ‘tyranny of the majority’
- e.g. education reform - Pupil Premium - funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools - role of education in cultivating an enlightened society
11
Q
John Stuart Mill’s views on society
A
- the best society is one where ‘individuality’ coexists with tolerance and self-improvement
- individuals rely on societies that tolerate their individualism
- greater enlightenment will produce greater tolerance and consensus
- e.g. proportional representation in electoral systems e.g. STV provides greater, fair representation to minority viewpoints
12
Q
John Stuart Mill’s views on the economy
A
- laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise & individual initiative
- property facilitated individualism - property is a crucial vehicle for self-realisation and self-determination
- unequal outcomes are consistent with a ‘meritocratic’ society that encourages individualism and rewards those who have earned their advantages
- e.g. free market/trade - no subsidies, taxes or regulations - e.g. deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
13
Q
John Rawls’ views on human nature
A
- mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty & the plight of those around them
- veil of ignorance: if individuals did not know the sort of people they would be in a society (white/ethnic minority, rich/poor etc.) rational humans would choose a society where the poorest members fared better than in present society
- government by consent - individuals endorse this ‘fairer’ society
- e.g. Beveridge Report 1942 providing post-war welfare state through unemployment benefits, food assistance programs, housing support etc. “from cradle to grave”
14
Q
John Rawls’ views on the state
A
- conditions of the poor should be improved by the state
- the gap between richest and poorest shouldn’t necessarily be narrowed
- enlarged, ‘enabling’ state: significant redistribution of wealth via extensive public spending & progressive taxation
- extended state so its activities liberate individuals from social and economic problems, enabling them to fulfil their potential
- representative democracy rather than direct democracy
- e.g. universal healthcare e.g. formation of the NHS in 1948 & Obama’s Affordable Healthcare Act 2010: stemmed from a belief that individual liberty can be obstructed by economic factors
15
Q
John Rawls’ views on society
A
- the society most rational individuals would choose would be one where the condition of the poorest would improve
- veil of ignorance: if individuals did not know the sort of people they would be in a society (white/ethnic minority, rich/poor etc.) rational humans would choose a society where the poorest members fared better than in present society
- the original position: individuals construct a society they feel would be superior to their current one
- e.g. Beveridge Report 1942 providing post-war welfare state through unemployment benefits, food assistance programs, housing support etc. “from cradle to grave”
16
Q
John Rawls’ views on the economy
A
- free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens
- expansion of state spending to overcome the ‘five giants’ cited by the Beveridge Report needed to be financed by taxation
a sufficient yield could only be assured by the steady economic growth promised by Keynesianism - Keynesian capitalism: state directing & managing market forces to ensure steady growth, full employment & greater individual liberty
- e.g. progressive taxation: redistributing wealth and resources to provide equality of opportunity to benefit disadvantaged individuals
17
Q
Betty Friedan’s views on human nature
A
- human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women
- concern for individualism: all individuals should seek self-determination and the realisation of their potential but gender is a serious hindrance to women
- e.g. paid family leave policies: allow both men and women to take time off work for newborns promotes gender equality in caregiving responsibilities - traditional gender roles often limit women’s opportunities
18
Q
Betty Friedan’s views on the state
A
- state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against female individualism
- disdained violence/illegality as a means of pursuing change & argued that significant progress was possible via the procedures of a liberal state
- state’s role in promoting tolerance should be extended further to illegalise racial and sexual discrimination
- this tolerant society could be ‘psychologically embedded’ by the state via bureaucratic agencies with an ‘educational’ function
- e.g. Human Rights Act 1998 & Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & prohibits gender discrimination, providing legal recourses for women, aligning with her advocacy for equality & fairness
19
Q
Betty Friedan’s views on society
A
- society remains chauvinistic towards women but women are complicit in their repression
- it is illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature that condemns women to under-achievement
- ‘cultural channels’: chauvinistic attitudes are nurtured & transmitted via society’s cultural channels (schools, religion, media, literature, theatre & cinema)
- these channels of ‘cultural conditioning’ leave many women convinced that their lot in life is determined by ‘iron laws’ rather than their own rationality & enterprise
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - equality duties on schools (race, disability and gender) to eliminate discrimination and advance equality of opportunity shows importance of education in empowering women and challenging traditional gender roles
20
Q
Betty Friedan’s views on the economy
A
- free market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination
- e.g. Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action (‘positive discrimination’): e.g. all-women shortlists to promote the representation of women in traditionally male-dominated fields e.g. politics, STEM and business
