all thinkers Flashcards
Liberalism - Human nature
(1) John locke
-Humans are rational, guided by self-interest, with rationalism promoting happiness and egotistical individualism avoiding conflict. Social contracts require consent for governing, as seen in the Fixed Term Parliament Act 2011.
(2) Mary W
-rationalism defines both genders: the Enlightenment’s optimistic analysis of human nature should apply to all humans
18th century England, society & state implied women were not rational and thus denied them individual freedom & formal equality
(3) John stuart Mill
-Human nature progresses, and liberty is a natural right for ongoing development. Developmental individualism focuses on individual growth. The harm principle states that state should tolerate actions unless it harms others’ liberty. Negative freedom, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion, is codified in the US Constitution.
Liberalism - State
John locke, Mary W, John rawls
(1) John Locke
- night-watchman role, justified by negative freedom
state intervention only justified to prevent actions that are harmful to others - allows individuals to follow the good life
- free market policies - deregulation & privatisation of electricity, water and railways by Thatcher
(2) Mary W
- the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights
formal equality must be accorded to all individuals - supported French Revolution’s emphasis upon ‘citizens’ and its indifference to gender differences
- Equality Act 2010 - requires employers to pay men and women equally & Affirmative Action
(3) John Rawls
- Enabling state
- The state should improve the conditions of the poor, widen the wealth gap, and enable individuals to fulfill their potential through extensive public spending and progressive taxation, promoting representative democracy and universal healthcare.
- E.g Universal healthcare, formation of the NHS
Liberalism - Society
John locke, Mary W, Mill
(1) John locke
-Society predates the state, with natural laws and rights. Individuals respect others’ rights, leading to a ‘natural’ society. Education policies prioritize quality, critical thinking, and engagement, fostering an enlightened society.
(2) Mary W
- Society infantilized women, stifling their individualism and limiting their intelligence, wisdom, and morality. This limited progress through political empowerment through gender quotas and all-women shortlists.
(3) John Stuart Mill
- the best society is one where ‘individuality’ coexists with tolerance and self-improvement
- individuals rely on societies that tolerate their individualism
- greater enlightenment will produce greater tolerance and consensus
e.g. proportional representation in electoral systems e.g. STV provides greater, fair representation to minority viewpoints
Liberalism - Economy
Locke, Rawls, Betty Friedan
(1) John Locke
- state policy should respect ‘natural right’ to private property & arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade & resources
state’s only role is to protect property & enforce contracts
market should be left to guide rational individuals
(2) John Rawls
- free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens
expansion of state spending to overcome the ‘five giants’ cited by the Beveridge Report needed to be financed by taxation
a sufficient yield could only be assured by the steady economic growth promised by Keynesianism
(3) Betty Friedan
-free market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination
Socialism - Human nature
Marx, Luxemburg, Webb
(1) Karl Marx
- revolutionary socialist view that capitalism is a corrupting influence on human nature
humans are social creatures but this has been damaged by capitalism
human nature, originally fraternal and altruistic, has been contaminated by the “false consciousness” of the bourgeoisie & revolutionary socialism will repair this
“my object in life is to dethrone God and destroy capitalism to liberate human nature”
(2) Rosa L
- capitalism is a corrupting influence on human nature
human nature is not damaged to the extent Marx alleges: fraternity & altruism still flourish in working class communities punished by capitalism
capitalism promoted exploitation & is at odds with humanity’s natural, fraternal state
(3) Beatrice webb
- democratic socialist view that violent revolution/dictatorship of the proletariat would further corrupt human nature
- capitalism caused “crippling poverty” and is a corrupting force in humanity, fostering unnatural levels of avarice and selfishness among men and women
- damage to human psyche by capitalism will be made worse by violent revolution: human nature needs to be ‘guided back’
Socialism - State
Marx, Rosa L, Webb
(1) Karl Marx
- The socialist view argues that capitalism is a tool of the bourgeoisie, and the existing liberal state must be destroyed through revolution. A socialist state, characterized by a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” would replace existing governments, implementing social welfare programs and addressing labor exploitation and wealth redistribution.
(2) Rosa L
-governments need to be destroyed and replaced by a workers-based society of true democracy: this arises from strike action
- rejected the need for a “revolutionary vanguard” and a “dictatorship of the proletariat”
“freedom in a state is how free your opponent is”
(3) Beatrice Webb
- paternalism/philanthropy are not solutions to the problems of poverty & inequality: would be eliminated through trade unionism and extensive state intervention (gradualism)
- The state should manage a gradual transition to socialism, ensuring common ownership of production means and control of industries or services. This approach, supported by trade unionism and universal suffrage, could eliminate poverty and inequality, promoting a welfare state with training, living wage, healthcare, and elderly care.
Socialism - Society
Karl Marx, Webb, Giddens
(1) Karl Marx
- capitalism has created 2 social classes: bourgeoisie and proletariat
class consciousness is a prerequisite of revolution therefore destroy promoters of “false consciousness”: society should be classless
capitalist society is defined by class interests: a communist society will be the perfect “end of history”
(2) Beatrice Webb
- poverties and inequalities of capitalist society stifles human potential while fostering regressive competition: focus on tackling poverty
incremental approach not the bloodshed and chaos of revolution to create a perfect society: gradualism
- religion is not the logic and “not the solution for the problems of poverty and inequality”
(3) Anthony Giddens
- The revisionist socialist view emphasizes working with middle classes and creating stakeholders and communitarianism with obligations. It suggests that no core element should dominate, and investing in infrastructure and public services like transportation, childcare, and eldercare enhances social integration and cooperation.
Socialism - Economy
karl marx, Rosa L, Beatrice webb
(1) Karl Marc
- exploitation of the proletariat is inevitable: capitalism ensures its own destruction as it nurtures resentful class consciousness among workers who will overthrow it
collective ownership: redistribution of wealth (“abolish all private property”)
capitalism is a corrupt and inefficient system and is self-destructive
(2) Rosa L
- The revolutionary socialist view suggests that capitalism needs to expand to new markets or die, but even imperialism cannot create enough. A global class consciousness envisions a worker-controlled economy, arguing that replacing capitalism requires proletariat commitment and solidarity.
(3) Beatrice webb
- The democratic socialist view proposes a gradual replacement of capitalism with common ownership of production means, achieved through extensive state intervention in the existing political/democratic system. This approach aims to secure workers’ full labor benefits, rather than chaos and bloodshed.
Conservatism - Human Nature
Hobbes, Burke, Oakshott
(1) Thomas hobbes
- individuals are selfish and driven by a desire for supremacy and security. They are sceptical of human nature, committing atrocities when left to their own devices. Before the state, there was no cooperation or voluntary arrangements. Human nature is shaped by a restless desire for goods, distrust of others, and fear of violent death. Strong law enforcement and criminal justice policies are essential for maintaining order and protecting citizens.
(2) Edmund Burke
- human imperfection: gap between what people wanted & what they could achieve (mankind’s fallibility)
talents not shared equally - lower classes incapable of leadership - elitist view
(3) Oakshott
- Oakshott’s optimism about human nature is more optimistic than Hobbes’, stating that humans are fallible and not terrible, but can find pleasure and improvement in everyday life, valuing the good things in existence rather than chasing ideals which couldnt be reached.
Conservatism - State
Hobbes (authoritarianism), Burke (paternalistic)
, Oakshott ( ship analogy)
(1) Thomas Hobbes
- The state should be autocratic and authoritative, intimidating and feared to be obeyed. It should be a social contract, where individuals agree to make laws restrained by the state, allowing order and security. State power should be concentrated, as no state creates anarchy and chaos. Examples include authoritarianism, which grants the government exceptional powers during emergencies.
(2) Burke
- ‘Noblesse Oblige’: supported the existence of elites & dismissed equality (inevitable and desirable - elitist view) but said it is the obligation of elites to look after & protect lower classes - paternalistic state
- Examples include tax benefits for married couples.
job of government is to “prevent bad not create good”: best things in life normally emerge from routine, apolitical activity
- ship analogy: “we all sail a boundless sea, with no appointed destination”: government/state should keep the ship afloat not necessarily try to take its ‘passengers’ to a destination
Conservatism - Society
Hobbes, Burke, Oakshott
(1) Hobbes
- because of our flawed human nature society cannot exist without there being a state
- Individuals surrender their rights to a sovereign, leading to a society where they can enjoy security and progress. Mandatory taxation, such as income and council taxes, ensures this.
(2) Burke
- organicism: society is like a plant (change necessary but had to be careful & it was important to stick to traditions that were the roots of the plant - if you interfere with the roots you damage/kill the plant)
- Empiricism views society as reality, focusing on reality rather than ideals. Localism condemns centralized structures and promotes small, diverse communities. Family and marriage policies, such as tax benefits for married couples, emphasize the importance of tradition and custom in maintaining social cohesion and stability. Examples include France after the revolution and France after the revolution.
(3) Oakshott
- “humdrum of normality”: society built around empiricism/normality - humans incapable of creating a ‘perfect’ society but could get pleasure & improvement through everyday life
favoured a society of local communities: saw socialism as an ideology that chased an ‘ideal’ that could not be reached and this leads to impatience, intolerance & frustration
Conservatism - Economy
Hobbes, Burke, Oakshott
(1) Hobbes
-for the economy to function effectively a strong state is needed: the economy requires order that a strong state would provide
He defines economic activity as the “rationalization of selfishness”: every man is driven to act in order to his own benefit
(2) Burke
- free-market economics - laissez-faire
e.g. low & stable taxation: preserving social order and preventing the disruption caused by excessive government intervention - minimal state
(3) Oakshott
- supporter of free market capitalism but accepted it creates victims who need help/support: believed in ‘Welfarism’
free markets needed to be moderated by the state as they were volatile
- He noted threats to historic charms in rural areas and village communities, such as property developers and HS2 rail project, affecting green-belt areas and woodlands.
