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A Level Politics > Liberalism > Flashcards

Liberalism Flashcards

1
Q

Core principles of liberalism

A

-individualism
-freedom
-reason
-tolerance
-justice

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2
Q

When did the concept of individualism develop?

A

-product of the breakdown of feudalism and absolutism
-radical revolutionary change
-1776 American independence and subsequent Declaration of Independence “all men r created equal”
-1789 French Revolution

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3
Q

Implications of individualism (2):

A

-individuality (everyone has unique qualities that make them a valuable person; self realisation of this leads to flourishment)-very modern

-“difference blindness”- quite classical

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4
Q

Classical vs Modern views of individualism

A

-classical= egoistical liberalism (self interest and self reliance)

-modern= developmental individualism (prioritises human flourishing via welfarism over utilitarianism)

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5
Q

Ethical individualism and its implications for all liberals

A

Society should benefit the individual
-stems from liberal beliefs in natural rights and foundational equality (we are all born morally equal and with the same rights)

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6
Q

How do humans act in a “state of nature”?

A

-rationally
-humans are rational beings capable of pursuing their own best interests

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7
Q

Harm principle

A

JS Mills!! idea that one’s liberty should only be limited once their actions bring harm to another individual

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8
Q

Self regarding vs other regarding actions

A

JS Mill!!

Self regarding are actions which affect only the individual and thus they should have full autonomy over

Other regarding are actions which affect others are thus ones freedom to exercise these powers should be limited

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9
Q

Rawls!! On freedom

A

Everyone is entitled to the widest possible liberty consistent with a like liberty for all

Controversial by discounting the idea of positive freedom, in the sense that people should be free to develop as a person and achieve self-realisation (Berlin)

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10
Q

2 types of freedom identified by Berlin

A

-positive freedom (freedom to…)

-negative freedom (freedom from…)

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11
Q

Liberal views on society

A

-atomistic (society is just a collection of individuals)- very classical as based on egoism- leads to strong belief in meritocracy

-altruistic- very modern- less of a meritocracy until everyone is materially equal

-all liberals advocate for equality of opportunity

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12
Q

Foundational vs formal equality

A

Foundational= each individual is born with the same moral worth and thus natural rights (negative freedom link)

Formal= individuals should all have equal status within society (negative freedom link)

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13
Q

Components of formal equality

A

-legal equality (equality before the law)
-political equality (“one person, one vote; one vote, one value”)

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14
Q

Classical vs modern on formal equality

A

-classical may say that formal equality brings about equality of opportunity but a modern liberal may disagree because being equal in the eyes of the law or politics doesn’t account for disparity in wealth or resource so some people need welfare

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15
Q

Why do liberals fear the government?

A

Excessive state power could infringe upon our natural rights and freedoms (a more classical view)

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16
Q

Why is government necessary in the eyes of classical liberals?

A

-to protect our properties and freedoms from being infringed upon by others
-Locke!! Social contract theory emphasises how state power comes form below and is an agreement amongst rational beings to ensure they are adequately protected from others

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17
Q

When did Locke!! Believe it was okay to rebel?

A

If a government failed to fulfill their role you should inspire a revolution

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18
Q

Why do liberals support limited government and how it is achieved?

A

-belief in human self interest and egoistic individualism means that liberals believe power always leads to corruption
-need for constitutionalism and democracy

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19
Q

Forms of constitutionalism (2):

A

-external and legal constraints (e.g. written constitution)
-internal “checks and balances” (e.g. separation of powers like the USA or a judiciary)

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20
Q

Features of liberal democracy

A

-civil and pluralist society which respects atomised individuals
-universal suffrage (“difference blindness”)
-regular elections so the state is consistently consensual
-checks and balances on government to prevent corruption

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21
Q

Liberal views on the economy

A

-free market
-classical liberals=totally free market, self regulating (smiths invisible hand)
-modern liberals=keynesian economics (government should create demand to regulate the market)

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22
Q

Key ideas of classical liberalism

A

-natural rights
-utilitarianism
-economic liberalism
-social Darwinism

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23
Q

Locke vs Jefferson on natural rights

A

Locke believed they were “life, liberty and property” but Jefferson said they were “life, liberty and pursuit of happiness”

24
Q

Classical liberal description of rights (2):

A

-natural- we have them from birth and they are applicable to all
-inalienable-they cannot be removed and if they are we should revolt

25
Q

What is utilitarianism?

A

The idea that the best course of action in any situation is one which produces the most pleasure

A majoritarian system in society (maximising pleasure for the greatest number of people is the best thing to do because we are innately self interested)

26
Q

Types of utilitarianism (2):

A

-act utilitarianism (judges individual acts by how much pleasure they produce)

-rule utilitarianism (judges actions by how much they conform to certain rules which are believed to maximise societal pleasure)

27
Q

What is economic liberalism and why did it develop?

A

The idea that the market is self regulated and guided by an invisible hand

Developed by Adam smith, who criticised mercantilism (maximising exports and minimising imports) as he believed that individuals are economically self interested but holistically the market is guided by market forces, so the government should take a “laissez-faire” approach

28
Q

Why do classical liberals think social inequality exists?

A

-endorsement of meritocracy
-some people choose not to work hard and thus don’t reap any reward (smiles “self-help”)

29
Q

What is social Darwinism?

A

The idea that the most hardworking individuals will prosper and those who are idle and don’t help themselves will suffer (societal survival of the fittest)

Criticised by modern liberals as some people don’t have the capacity or resource to work hard

30
Q

Core principles of modern liberalism

A

-individuality
-positive freedoms and the enabling state
-social liberalism
-economic management

31
Q

Why did modern liberalism develop?

A

Just and liberalism on the whole developed radically out of revolution, modern liberalism developed due to the speed of industrialisation in high income countries, which created a large wealth and social disparity (e.g poor living and working conditions and unemployment)

32
Q

What is individuality and how does it differs from classical views of individualism?

A

Individuality is the idea that each person has unique skills and purposes which, once they realise them, allow them to flourish in society, thus the state should help people to realise their potential by giving them resource to help them develop (developmental). Whereas, classical liberals subscribe to and egoistic view of people, believing in the self interest of Individuals

Advocated for by Mill!!! (The bridge between modern and classical)

33
Q

Mills!! Higher and lower pleasures

A

Higher= theatre, philosophy etc whereas lower= alcohol and food

Mill endorsed higher pleasures, saying that anyone would chose them over lower pleasures if they had the capacity as they help you to flourish (“rather Socrates dissatisfied than a pug dissatisfied”)

34
Q

What is altruism?

A

Belief in the concern for the interests and welfare of others. Belief in altruism paved the way for positive freedoms which would help people to develop and attain individuality, subverting classical negative freedoms which Simply give freedom of choice (not enough)

Advocated for by TH Green

35
Q

What is the welfare state?

A

-modern liberal view of the state (as opposed to classical “night-watchman”)
-justified by a need for equality of opportunity which can’t be achieved without welfare because some people are disadvantaged

-welfarism was prominent after the war (1942 Beveridge report which paved the way for 1948 NHS by identifying 5 giant)

36
Q

Rawls!! Difference principle

A

Since people view and egalitarian society as fairer, Rawls believed that social and economic benefits should be arranged to help the most disadvantaged whilst still providing an incentive to work

37
Q

Keynes’ views on economic management

A

-economy was an issue of demand
-government should increase demand by either creating more jobs or cutting taxes to artificially create demand

-direct contradiction of Von Hayek, who believed economic issues stemmed from issues of supply and so governments should encourage people to save rather than invest in things that people aren’t buying.

38
Q

Locke on the state (2):

A

-His “social contract theory”
-“where there is no law there is no freedom”

39
Q

Locke on human nature (4):

A

-“every man has a property is his own person”
-(natural rights are) “life, liberty and property”
-“your body is your property to only you”
-“the state of nature has a law to govern it…reason”

40
Q

JS Mill on the state

A

-“the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised is to prevent harm to others” (harm principle)
-(democracy is) “the highest and most harmonious development of human capacities”

41
Q

JS Mill on human nature (4):

A

-distinction between “self regarding” and “other regarding” actions
-“over himself, his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign”
-“Rather Socrates dissatisfied than a pig dissatisfied”
-distinction between “higher” and “lower” pleasures

42
Q

JS Mill on society

A

It should be a “free market of ideas” and thus we should tolerate bad ideas cause reason tells us they’ll be disregarded eventually

43
Q

Rawls on the state

A

Exercise the “difference principle” (social and economic aid must be arranged to help the least well-off whilst still giving people an incentive to work)

44
Q

Rawls on society (3)

A

-“society is a cooperative adventure for mutual advantage”
-“public system of rules”
-“act together”
-his “vile of ignorance” thought experiment reveals an innate want for an egalitarian society

45
Q

Lord Acton on the state/ Human nature

A

“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”

46
Q

Kant on human nature

A

We should treat others as an “end in themselves”

47
Q

Voltaire on human nature and freedom

A

“I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it”

48
Q

Montesquieu on the state

A

“Power should be a check to power”

49
Q

Rousseau on why democracy isn’t liberal

A

“Were there a people of gods their government would be democratic” (because people are imperfect democracy doesn’t work)

50
Q

Paine on the state

A

State is a “necessary evil”

51
Q

Jefferson on natural rights (human nature)

A

-they are “inalienable”
-“life, liberty and pursuit of happiness”

52
Q

Benthems ideas on rights and Utilitarianism

A

-believed natural rights are “nonsense on stilts”
-believed utilitarianism was a “scientific principle’”
“Produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people”

53
Q

Adam smith on the economy

A

-the economy is guided by an “invisible hand”
“It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest”

54
Q

Sumner and Smiles on meritocracy

A

“Dunkard in the gutter is where he ought to be” (Sumner)
“Heaven helps those who help themselves” (Smiles)

55
Q

T.H Green on enabling state and positive freedoms

A

-“we are right in refusing a state in which the apparent elevation of the few in founded on the degradation of the many”

-Negative freedoms are “freedom to starve”

56
Q

Von Hayek vs Keynes on economics

A

Von Hayek=focus on increasing supply by encouraging investment instead of spending and keep a “natural rate of unemployment”

Keynes= focus on increasing demand by creating employment or cutting taxes to artificially create demand

A Level Politics (7 decks)

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