Liberalism Flashcards
Explain the origins of Liberalism
1) Reformation
- The late 15th and 16th centuries
- Martin Luther argued that individuals seeking to communicate with God do not need institutions, rejecting dominant Catholicism, favouring individual relations with God
- Modern literacy allowed private prayers detached from the Church
2) Enlightenment
- 17th century, coinciding with the American Declaration of Independence
- A belief in reason rather than faith, with the increased scrutiny of dogmatic concepts
3) Classical v Modern
- Classical = 17th-18th C
[I] Revolutionary potential
[II] -ve liberty
[III] Minimal state
[IV] Laissez-faire capitalism
- Modern = 19th-20th C
[I] +ve liberty
[II] Enlarged state
[III] Constitutional reform
[IV] Social liberalism
Explain the importance of natural rights in Liberalism
1) Freedom
- Freedom is a natural right
– The role of government is the protection of “life, liberty and estate” – Locke
- The state is needed to mediate between competing individuals to enforce order, protect property rights, and prevent breach of contract, that is all
2) Toleration
- Tolerance is the acceptance of differing beliefs; this has been extended to a range of views and practices
- Liberals take a relaxed view to personal matters
– Same Sex Marriage Act (2014 )
– Obama’s Defence of Marriage Act 2015
– Voltaire = “I hate what you say but will defend unto death your right to say it”
3) Foundational Equality
- Individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to liberty, the pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of pain
– US Bill of Rights and UK Human Rights Act (1998)
- Both of which protect legally what can be considered natural and inalienable rights
–1st, 5th, 6th amendment examples
– Blair - ‘barmy’ - allow nine Afghan hijackers temporary leave to remain in Britain
– NRA’s survaillance - probably unconstitutional
– 2010 = sex offenders on reg for life in breach of human rights
– Kant - “ends in themselves”, “by virtue of his humanity”
– Gladstone - “Liberalism is trust in the people”
– Rousseau = “To assert that the son of a slave is born a slave is to assert that he is not born a man”
(or property)
Explain the importance of human nature in Liberalism
= collection of inherent qualities essential to the individual
- Importance of individual - rational creatures - positive potential of humanity - can create positive progress
1) Rejection of mediaeval notion of human nature in place of optimistic view
- Trad = humans flawed, imperfect - must turn to God for mercy and forgiveness
- Liberals = capacity to bring about progress + great human happiness - individuals guided by reason / rationalism
2) Innate reason
- Believe innate reason is found in debates, peaceful arguments + discussion
- Plan your own future rather than relying on ‘fate’
3) ‘Problems are merely challenges awaiting reasoned solutions’
- Use reason and determination to solve problems, achieve what the individual wants in life
- Rationality = universal, so reason should lead to consensus
4) Self-seeking and self-serving
- Associated with egotistical individualism
- Liberals argue innate reason prevents selfishness, as people should be aware and sensitive of perspectives of other people
- Individuals living in peace + harmony with each other
Explain the importance of liberty in Liberalism (positive and negative but could split into separate questions)
Overview
??
Negative (classical)
– The state can intervene to prevent harm to others = Mill’s harm principle -outlined in ‘On Liberty’.
[I] Mill and Negative Liberty
= Individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others, not when their actions only affect themselves
[II] Locke and Negative Liberty
- Objected the right of authoritarian governments to make decisions on behalf of the people
- Freedom can never be absolute but must be exercised under the law
- “Where there is no law, there is no freedom”
[III] Bentham and Negative Liberty
- Human actions are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain
- This is a mechanistic view of liberty and human nature where people are motivated by rational self-interest
- Bentham believes in the greatest happiness for the greatest number or a Utilitarian society
Positive (modern)
– T.H. Green argued that society was an organic whole. People pursue common good + self-interest. Humans are both individual and social
- Idea individuals control their own destiny - with states needing to intervene sometimes
[I] Berlin and Positive Liberty
- Facilitates creation of a welfare state
- Concerns internal factors that “determine someone to do, or be”
[II] Wollstonecraft and Positive Liberty
- Society is only as free and progressive as its individual members
Explain the importance of individualism in Liberalism
1) Overview
- Give individual as much freedom as possible
- Individual > collective
- Stems from enlightenment
- Opposite to feudal, class system, collectivism etc.
– Mill – “Over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign”
– Kant = “ends in themselves” (not means to an end)
– Gladstone = “liberalism is trust in the people”
– Kant - each individual - right to external freedom “by virtue of his humanity.”
- People should not be treated as instruments to achieve a goal but as possessing intrinsic value = Kant = ‘categorical imperative’
– Locke - individuals coming together to agree to a social contract because individuals are better off that way
2) Egotistical individualism (classical)
- Individuals fend for themselves, there is no such thing as society
- Collection of egoistical, self-interested, and self-reliant individuals
- Justify minimal state and is prevalent in neo-liberal thinking
– “there’s no such thing as society. There are individual men and women” – Thatcher
- e.g. promoting their own happiness in a market place - Adam Smith – minimal state
– “The government that is best is that which governs least” – Thomas Jefferson
– “The minds of men are of no concern to the federal government” - Jefferson
– Mill – The individual is the best judge of their own interests, and no authority can claim superior knowledge
– Locke - hated authoritarian govts making decisions on behalf of the people
3) Developmental individualism (modern)
- Less atomised view
- It assumes that we may choose to make social progress and express a degree of altruism with social harmony
- This can be used to justify state intervention
- Human flourishing - Aristotelian view
– Mill updated his ideas of individualism - liberate individuals in future also – “It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”
– Mill argued universal suffrage - universal -promote developmental individualism
– DLG = Liberal Reforms = National Insurance Act (1911), Pensions Act (1908)
– Beveridge Report (1941) - 5 giants - welfare state should provide = “the cradle to the grave”
- Welfare state is consistent with the maximisation of freedom and equal opportunities as “a starving man cannot be free,” (Beveridge)
Explain the importance of equality in Liberalism
1) Equality of opportunity
- Equal chances to rise and fall. Liberals accept differing outcomes; people have different abilities and potential. One should be free to fulfil this potential; there is a need to break down social barriers.
– Justin Trudeau (2017) amended the Canadian Human Rights Act to add “gender identity and expression” to the list of federally prohibited grounds for discrimination
– Equality Act 2010 – Protected characteristics
– Equality Act (1928) and The Education Act (1944) which made secondary education free in the UK
2) Foundational Equality
– Humans have rights by virtue of being born, which cannot be violated. All have equal entitlement.
– Individuals should enjoy the same legal and political rights in society, ensured by equality before the law and equal voting rights.
- Foundational equality can be related to formal equality. The liberal world-view favours equal status for all members of society – ‘difference blind’.
– Gladstone’s 1884 Reform Act included proposals that would give working class men equal voting rights.
– Wollstonecraft – ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ (1792) – Women are entitled to equal education, pursuit of careers and property
3) Meritocracy
= Society organised on the basis that success is based on abilities and determination. Those with different talents should be awarded differently.
- The resulting social inequality is beneficial as it promotes work and the fulfilment of potential.
– “An injustice is tolerable only when it is necessary to avoid an even greater injustice.” – Rawls
-Defines ppl by ability, not social background
– Thomas Paine remarked, when justifying the French Revolution, that hereditary rule was “beyond equity, beyond reason”.
– Gladstone introduced competitive examinations for entry into the civil service in the 1870s, bringing an end to making appointments based on aristocratic connections
4) Equality and Freedom
- Conflict exists between equality and liberty. Society must choose between equality of outcome or the preservation of individual liberty
– Milton Friedman – “a society that puts equality ahead of freedom will end up with neither equality nor freedom.”
– Hayek – “a society that does not recognise that each individual has values of his own… cannot really know freedom.”
- Modern liberals favour state intervention to narrow social inequality. True equality is not possible without social justice. They do not believe in total equality
Explain the importance of rationalism in Liberalism
Rationalism
= Humans are governed by reason, so should be given as much freedom as possible
Implications:
1) Free to choose one’s own Path
- Regardless of societal norms, liberals believe in self-expression, guided by free will
- Champion the rights of minority groups – Black Lives Matter and Black History Month, etc…
2) Freedom of Movement
- Liberals welcome those feeling from persecution
- Freedom of movement is a central tenant of liberalism and is a logical conclusion amongst those who place reason above prejudice
– Article 21 (Freedom of movement) in the EU
– Kent v Dulles = “The right to travel is a part of the “liberty” of which the citizen cannot be deprived without due process of law under the Fifth Amendment”
– 2022-2023 = 468,800 immigrants to Canada
– 2022 = 117,800 Portugal
– 2023 = 518,000 Australia
3) Importance of Human Happiness
– Liberals support Aristotle’s observation that “happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life”
– The rights of all adults to marry the person they love without discrimination on the grounds of race, sex, etc
- Utilitarianism seeks to maximise the level of happiness
- - Same Sex Marriage Act 2013
- Obergefell v Hodges
- Roe v Wade
- Equality Act 2010
- Trudeau - 2017
- Equality Act (2019) - made to House of Rep
- Bellinger v Bellinger - preventing transsexuals from marrying violated their rights
- Ghaidan v Godin Mendoza - ‘spouse’ was interpreted to include same sex partners
4) Moral Responsibility
- Individuals should be free to make their judgments without guidance from external authorities
- These will not always be right, but it is better for individuals to take responsibility than instruction
Examples of Rationalism:
- Liberals understand that competition between bodies will draw conflict, yet the prefer rational debate and the resolving of disputes.
– League of Nations 1920 – Liberals view war as a last resort. Thus, Wilson was at the forefront of arguments for a worldwide mediator.
– EU – Supported by many liberals on the grounds that through surrendering some national sovereignty, member states derive benefits through association with each other, such as larger, free, trading areas and ease of movement
Explain the importance of pluralism in Liberalism
Pluralism = Dispersal of Power
- A commitment to diversity. Diversity is healthy and desirable as it safeguards individual liberty and promotes debate and understanding. Power must be widely dispersed in society
1) Social Interpretations
[I] Ethical or Moral Pluralism
- The liberal state should not decide any value is more valid than another. It should promote a series of state-led policies designed to promote greater formal equality.
– “True pluralism… rejects the view that all conflicts of values can be finally resolved by synthesis” – Berlin
[II] Cultural Pluralism
- A promotion of diversity in society, but diversity must exist within the framework of liberal values.
– Patriot Act 2001 which increased police surveillance and punishment for crimes of terrorism, rejected ideologies and beliefs that preach violence and oppression
–General rise of counter-terrorism groups; UN Office of Counter Terrorism
[III] Political Pluralism
- Tolerance of moral, cultural, and political diversity is essential for freedom
- Only a democracy in which diverse groups of individuals can compete, with the state acting as a neutral arbiter, is truly a liberal democracy
- Lack of pluralism leads to alienation, thus a lack of democratic participation
– Native American representation in US government (Only 2 have served in Congress despite making up 2% of pop)
– Bill ‘cabinet that looks like America’ , May ‘cabinet that looks like the nation it serves’, 1992 - ‘year of the woman’ - doubled rep of women in congress, Hillary first female Pres candidate, Welsh Assembly being 1st legislature in world to have an even split of men and women - 50-50, Rwanda = 2008 became the first country to have a female-majority parliament
2) Pluralism and Toleration
- Pluralism provides a basis for toleration
- Willingness to accept that others are different, with values to which one may disagree
- Tolerance allows the greatest possible freedom and autonomy of the individual
- However, tolerance can only be extended to cultures, values and beliefs that are themselves tolerant and in keeping with the rules of the liberal state.
– Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 = forced marriage is illegal in the UK despite it being considered a cultural ritual in some communities
3) Pluralism and Democracy
- Offers a justification for Liberal Democracy
= Pluralism is the theory that power is not concentred in the hands of an elite but dispersed. This is also the fundamental root of democracy.
- Competing groups produce equilibrium and stability by endorsing the democratic political system that allows the potential to access power
– 10th Amendment highlights the dispersal of powers between states. This allows competition between the federal and central which should create an equilibrium of power as they contest.
- A lack of pluralism within democratic systems, leaves way to autocratic regimes, evidenced with the rise of Nazi Germany from the remanets of liberal Weimar
- Locke - social contract
Explain the importance of toleration in Liberalism
1) Tolerance of Diversity
- Everyone holds equal moral worth, and everyone should therefore be granted equal rights
– Locke’s ‘Letter on Toleration’ - no govt / ruler should rule on basis of ‘religious truth’ - not up to them to discern what’s religious truth
– Elizabeth I = “no desire to make windows into men’s souls”
– Locke: role of govt “protect life, liberty and estate”
– Mill’s concept of ‘experiments in living’ – Free scope should be given to varieties of character
- Society must embrace a vast array of lifestyle choices that reflect free will and ability to realise potential if there is no collective harm
2) Shortcomings of Toleration within Liberalism
- actions must be consistent with liberal principles
- Reject concepts such as forced or ‘political’ marriages and ‘extremist’ views.
– 2011, French President Sarkozy introduced a ban on the burqa and niqab in public on the grounds of protecting women’s rights
- ALSO paradox of tolerance - realised by Karl Popper - unlimited tolerance –> being tolerant of the intolerant –> elimination of tolerance
–> “unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance”
– Rawls = “society has a right to self-preservation” with regards to tolerance - can be intolerant of the intolerant - violate freedom of speech?
3) Toleration and Liberal Democracy
- Diversity reflects an expression of the individual. Exposure to diverse ways of living is beneficial towards society
– Mill in ‘On Liberty’ argued that silencing the individual is no more just than silencing the majority.
– “I detest what you say but will defend unto the death your right to say it” – Voltaire
- Freedom of speech
Explain classical Liberal views on negative liberty
Negative – The Absence of Restraint (Classical):
– The state can intervene to prevent harm to others = Mill’s harm principle -outlined in ‘On Liberty’.
1) Mill and Negative Liberty
= Individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others, not when their actions only affect themselves
2) Locke and Negative Liberty
- Objected the right of authoritarian governments to make decisions on behalf of the people
- Freedom can never be absolute but must be exercised under the law
- “Where there is no law, there is no freedom”
3) Bentham and Negative Liberty
- Human actions are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain
- This is a mechanistic view of liberty and human nature where people are motivated by rational self-interest
- Bentham believes in the greatest happiness for the greatest number or a Utilitarian society
Explain classical Liberal views on minimal state
1) Overview
= refers to a government that is limited in its size, scope, and power
- Under classical liberalism, the state’s role is primarily to protect individual rights and ensure the rule of law - State would be responsible for maintaining a legal system that protects individuals from violence, theft, and fraud, but not economy / social issues
- Economy = believe in free markets and minimal govt intervention
- State would only intervene in the economy in cases of market failure or to ensure fair competition
- No government control over prices, wages, or production, and individuals would be free to trade and pursue their economic interests –> reduced tax, continued national defence, stability of economy and protection of property
- Classical liberals see the state as necessary but evil. The state must be a nightwatchman
- The state may act in an arbitrary manner to persecute certain groups
- The role of the state must be limited via constitutionalism, an independent judiciary, and the rule of law.
- The state must uphold full expression, as found within the 1st Amendment.
– “The government that is best is that which governs least” – Thomas Jefferson
– “The minds of men are of no concern to the federal government” - Jefferson
– Mill – The individual is the best judge of their own interests, and no authority can claim superior knowledge
- R(Miller) v PM
- Belmarsh and Broadmoor
- Howard 10 times
- Blair- ‘barmy’
2) Locke on Minimal State:
- Depicted a binding social contract “himself under an obligation to everyone of that society”
- Govt justified upon the basis of consent. The people have periodic opportunities to renew mandates
- Government must agree, in return for a mandate, to protect natural rights
- People must accept some curtailment of liberty provided they retain the option to reclaim the rights. This may even be through revolution.
3) Herbert Spencer on Minimal State
- Minimal state with negative freedoms would cause survival of the fittest. Thus, the elimination of those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism; leading to a society where rational self-reliance was the norm.
Explain classical Liberal views on egotistical individualism
- Individuals fend for themselves, there is no such thing as society
- Merely a collection of egoistical, self-interested, and self-reliant individuals. - Used to justify minimal state and is prevalent in neo-liberal thinking
– “there’s no such thing as society. There are individual men and women” – Thatcher
(don’t think they’d ask that)
Explain classical Liberal views on civil society
1) Overview
- Collection of organisations not associated with the govt. - for example churches and businesses.
- Society could exist without state
– Locke suggested the existence of a natural society with natural laws therefore natural rights, all of which preceded the state
– Mill = society is designed to serve individualism - states in ‘On Liberty’ that each individual strives for the freedom to life in a way that maximises self-reliance and fulfilment.
2) Locke on Civil Society
- The right to property – “that with which man has mixed his labour.”
- This is an expression of individuals within a society
3) Mill on Civil Society
- Property is the prism through which individuals develop their potential, providing opportunities, within civilised communities, for all to nurture their taste and judgement
Explain modern Liberal views on individuality (developmental individualism)
= concept that emphasizes the importance of individual development and self-realization.
- Emphasizes that each individual has unique abilities and talents that should be nurtured and developed and that this development is essential for a fulfilling life
- Belief that govt policies should be designed to help individuals achieve their full potential
- May involve providing access to education, healthcare, and other resources that promote personal growth and development
don’t think they’d ask that
Explain modern Liberal views on positive liberty
1) Overview
Positive – The Capacity to Act and Realise Potential (Modern)
– T.H. Green argued that society was an organic whole. People pursue common good + self-interest. Humans are both individual and social
- Idea individuals control their own destiny - with states needing to intervene sometimes
2) Berlin and Positive Liberty
- Facilitates creation of a welfare state
- Concerns internal factors that “determine someone to do, or be”
3) Wollstonecraft and Positive Liberty
- Society is only as free and progressive as its individual members
