Liberalism

Question 1

What did John Locke believe regarding human nature?

Answer 1

• ‘Mechanistic theory’ - humans were rational and capable of producing a state that relects the needs of man - pointed rejection of the divine right of kings.
• Agreed with Hobbes there was a state of nature though argued that it would be more ordered - ‘state of nature has a law of nature in it’.

Question 2

What did John Locke believe regarding the state?

Answer 2

• ‘Social contract theory’ - government would secure legitimate support at elections in return they would grant rights protection
• The 2nd amendment is essentially a reiteration of his idea that the governed should always have the means to overthrow the government.

Question 3

What did John Locke believe regarding society?

Answer 3

• Advocated that humans should be tolerant of others
• He advocated religious toleration in ‘An Essay Concerning Toleration’ (written 1667) - ‘earthly judges, the state in particular, cannot dependably evaluate the truth claims of competing religious standpoints’.
• Contradiction of the puritan rule of at the time.

Question 4

What did John Locke believe regarding the economy?

Answer 4

• Owning of private property was seen as a right that should not be infringed
• ‘No one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty and possessions’.

Question 5

What did J.S. Mill believe about human nature?

Answer 5

• Self-regarding actions should be tolerated (such as religious worship).
• Other-regarding actions (violent behaviour) should not be tolerated as they cause harm to others.
• Mentioned in ‘On Liberty’ (1859)

Question 6

What did J. S. Mill believe regarding the state?

Answer 6

• Mill feared that the age old principle of ‘government by consent’ could lead to the views of the majority being overwhelmed - leading to ‘tyranny of the majority’ as he called it.
• This fear still lives within the Lib Dems to this day - e.g. AV referendum 2011 under the coalition.
• ‘Other-regarding’ actions should not be tolerated by the state - respects the state’s role as ‘night watchman’.

Question 7

What did J. S. Mill believe regarding society?

Answer 7

• Individual freedom is not an amenity to those whose actions harm others.
• Rather than outright banning harmful pleasures, raising awareness of their harm was far more efficacious.
• ‘Harmless pleasures’ should simply be tolerated.

Question 8

What did J. S. Mill believe regarding the economy?

Answer 8

• He claimed that socialism was superior though argued for free enterprise, competition and individual initiative.
• ‘Wealth is the natural end of labour, but the distribution of that wealth will be determined by the actual people’ (The Principles of Political Economy 1848)

Question 9

What did T. H. Green believe regarding freedom?

Answer 9

• ‘Freedom is the power to identify oneself with what reason tells him is ‘true good’’.
• Links to Ayn Rand’s theory of objectivism which placed an emphasis on man’s reason.

Question 10

What did T. H. Green believe regarding the state?

Answer 10

• The role of the state was to protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chances of achieving prosperity.
• The state should recognise the existence of common duties as a way of promoting individual capabilities.

Question 11

What did T. H. Green believe regarding society?

Answer 11

• Perfection and self-development cannot be achieved in isolation, it is only found in the interaction of individuals
• Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are to form society.

Question 12

What did T. H. Green believe regarding the economy?

Answer 12

• Critical of laissez faire economics - state should play a larger role in the lives of people.

Question 13

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe regarding human nature?

Answer 13

• Like Locke, she placed a huge emphasis on education - without it women were unable to develop their mental faculties to realise the absurdity of illiberal principles such as gender inequality and divine right to rule.

Question 14

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe regarding the state?

Answer 14

• The idea of ‘government by consent’ could not exist if women were denied the right to vote in elections as they could not give their consent.
• ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Men’ - critique of Burke’s critique of the French Revolution and his defence for aristocratic rule - she advocated a constitutional government where the methods of rights protection could be maintained.

Question 15

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about society?

Answer 15

• Rather than developing women’s individual potential, Hanoverian Society contrived to ‘keep women in a state of listless inactivity and stupid acquiescence’.
• Failing to grant liberty to an entire gender, society becomes more vulnerable to doctrines that threaten the whole spirit of the enlightenment.

Question 16

What did Mary Wollstonecraft believe about the economy?

Answer 16

A free-market economy would be greatly benefitted by liberated women.

Question 17

What did John Rawls believe about human nature?

Answer 17

When placed in the ‘original position’ behind the ‘veil of ignorance’, humans, being rational and empathetic, would choose a society where the poorest fare better than they do currently.

Question 18

What did John Rawls believe regarding the state?

Answer 18

‘Foundational equality’ - state should be an ‘enabling state’ - public spending and progressive taxation - influences Lib Dem policy to this day e.g. Pupil premium scheme.

Question 19

What did John Rawls believe regarding society?

Answer 19

A ‘fairer’ society is the one we would opt for - thus a larger state, with significant wealth redistribution was consistent with liberalism’s stress upon consent by the governed.

Question 20

What did John Rawls believe about the economy?

Answer 20

‘A Theory of Justice’ contradicted Hayek’s claim that redistribution of wealth was a surrender to socialism but rather consistent with liberal principles of equality of opportunity not equality of outcome.

Emphasised ‘Dirigisme’ - the idea that the state’s role was to ‘steer’ the economy and regulate demand to manage the economy - influenced many such as Keynes.

Question 21

What did Betty Friedan believe about human nature?

Answer 21

‘Cultural conditioning’ left women believing their lot in life was determined by human nature rather than social attitudes, Friedan aimed to change this ‘irrational’ assumption.

Gender was a serious hindrance to personal development to individuals who were female.

Question 22

What did Betty Friedan believe regarding the state?

Answer 22

• Liberal in the respect she criticised violence and illegality as a way to pursue change - progress was possible through legal equality brought about by a liberal state.
• Lauded the US Constitution’s ability to allow individuals to flourish.

Question 23

What did Betty Friedan believe about society?

Answer 23

• In ‘The Feminist Mystique’ - ‘Illiberal attitudes’ (such as inequalities of pay) where perpetuated by various culture channels such as schools, organised religion, the media and mainstream literature and media.

Question 24

What did Betty Friedan believe about the economy?

Answer 24

Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation (being set free) if allied to legislation that perpetuated sexual discrimination.