Leys Flashcards by Bryce Steindl

Several factors contribute to the state of nutrition including: appetite, ______, genotype, digestion, metabolism, availability of food, customs and _____.

energy expenditure,

presence of disease

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Leptin, ____, and insulin are important regulators of food intake

Ghrelin

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What circulates in the body at levels proportional to body fat

Leptin

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_____ signals the brain that the body has had enough to eat or satiety

Leptin

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Adipose tissue produces _____ that regulate metabolic processes to meet the body’s needs

adipokines

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AMP and AMP/ATP regulate ______ that senses cellular energy levels

AMP-activated kinase (AMPK)

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What regulates rate-limiting enzymes in energy producing and using pathways?

AMPK

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High levels of AMPK activity inhibit ______ and stimulate energy generating pathways

energy-utilizing pathways

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Increased ______ increases appetite

Ghrelin

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Ghrelin favors accumulation of ___ in the visceral fatty tissue

lipids

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Estimated average requirements (EAR) for calories and daily protein requirements change with ____ and ____.

age and sex

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The idea amount of calorie intake in a day is equal to the __________.

calorie utilization for that day

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________ for a nutrient is a value that is adequate for the great majority of individuals

Recommended daily allowance (RDA)

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The estimated average requirement (EAR) reflects amount that is adequate for ___ of the population.

half

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What nutrient has the highest energy content per weight?

fat

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Alcohol has a _____ energy content

high

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T/F Different nutrients have the same energy content

false, different

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Increases in obesity are correlated with an increase in the use of ________

high fructose corn syrup

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High fructose corn syrup is made by breaking down ____ into glucose using ____ followed by conversion to fructose with glucose isomerase

cornstarch, amylase

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__________ causes a number of health problems including: decreased protein synthesis and glucose transport, fatty liver, liver necrosis, and fibrosis, depression, hypothermia, compromised immune function and wound healing, decreased cardiac and renal function, loss of muscle

protein-calorie malnutrition

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The health issues associated with consumption of_______ include: mercury exposure, hypertension, elevated cholesterol, long term liver damage, increased risk of diabetes, weight gain and obesity.

high fructose corn syrup

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________ is associated with an increased risk for several conditions including: _____ diabetes, hypertension, stroke, dyslipidemia, gall stones, respiratory disorders, musculoskeletal disorders and several cancers including breast, endometrial, ovarian, gall bladder and colon

obesity, type 2

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______fatty acids are not essential and provide no benefit to human health

trans

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Saturated fats increase levels of ______ cholesterol (bad cholesterol)

LDL

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_____ increase levels of LDL and also lower levels of HDL (good cholesterol); thus increasing the risk of coronary heart disease

trans fats

cis and trans are both _______ fatty acids

unsaturated

Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one _______ bond

double

Cis- unsaturated fatty acids contain a ______ bc of the double bond

kink

Trans fatty acids are similar to _______fatty acids

saturated

Cis means that molecules are on the _______

same side

The ________ compartments of an animal cell include the mitochondria, cytosol, rough ER, smooth ER, nucleus, peroxisomes, endosomes, lysosomes

intracellular

_____ that have crossed a membrane are no longer topologically inside the cell

proteins

______ must recross the membrane to get back inside the cell

proteins

______ move from compartment to compartment within a cell by budding off and membrane fusion

vesicles

Many proteins have signal sequences at their ____ terminus that directs the proteins to cross the membrane

amino

Fewer proteins have _____ signal sequences

internal

The _____ is surrounded by a double lipid membrane bilayer

nucleus

_______ allow molecules, including proteins to pass from the cytosol into the nucleus and back

nuclear pores

Larger proteins pass through nuclear pores by a/an _____ process

active

It requires multiple signals to transport proteins from the cytosol into the lumen of the ________

mitochondria

Nuclear import receptors bind to _______ found on some nuclear bound proteins and facilitate transport into the nucleus

nuclear transport signals

There are multiple protein _____ in the mitochondrial membrane. Each ______ interacts with a specific set of proteins

Translocator

What is required to transport proteins into the mitochondria?

energy

Proteins enter _____ using a mechanism similar to mitochondrial entry

peroxisomes

Proteins travel from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through the ______ to many sites

Golgi Apparatus

A __________ binds to the signal sequence during translation and directs the nascent peptide to the ER membrane

Signal recognition protein (SRP)

Proteins bound for the mitochondria are translated in the _________ and then transported through the mitochondrial membrane

cytosol

What is required for transportation of proteins through the mitochondrial membrane?

ATP

Proteins that are headed into or through the ER are transported through the ER membrane during _______. This process does not require any additional energy.

translation

_________ modification of proteins in the ER helps direct them to their ultimate location

carbohydrate

The "default pathway" if there are no other signals directing the protein to other locations, is to send the protein to the ________

cell surface

In regulated secretory pathways cells store proteins in _______until they are signaled to release them from the cell by fusion of the vesicles with the cellular membrane

secretory vesicles

There are close to _____ bases of the human genome but only 20,000-25,0000 _______ genes

3 billion, protein coding genes

Alternative splicing and alternative gene promoters result in 4-6 different ______ from a single gene

mRNAs

Number of protein-coding mRNAs (transcriptome) may be as large as ________

100,000

The original Human Genome Project used ________ and ______ approaches for sequencing

clone by clone, shotgun

There are ____ gaps remaining in the Human genome (compared to 150,000 in draft)

250

Since the completion of the human genome, how has sequencing capacity and costs been affected?

sequencing capacity increased, costs decreased

_________ (OMIM) database has >10,000 entries that associate human genes with inherited diseases

Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man

What are mapped base positions in the genome where the nucleptide varies among people

SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)

Companies (eg 23 and me) are offering full genome scans to individuals for less than $100. This analysis is based on _______

SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism analysis)

This analysis uses labeled DNA hybridized to array of several million oligonucleotides on chips. This can be used for prenatal screening for early detection of chromosomal defects

Chromosomal Microarray Analysis (CMA)

_______ is the complement of mRNAs, containing protein coding sequences but there are also other RNAs produced that play structural or regulatory functions (miRNA, siRNA, etc.)

Transcriptome

The transcriptome can be studied using ______, a collection of complementary (cDNA) made from mRNA or synthetic oligonucleotides arranged on a solid phase slide in defined order

Microarrays

Generally, several _____ probes per gene are used with microarrays

oligonucleotide

Two samples can be compared by labeling each with a different ______ and hybridizing them to the same array (eg. two-color arrays can compare normal and cancer cells)

fluorescent dye

With advances in sequencing technology, ____ or sequencing the entire compliment of RNA in a sample is rapidly replacing microarray approaches

RNAseq

Data analysis is ____ intensive and requires stringent statistical analysis

bioinformatics

The study of the protein complement of a cell

proteomics

________ proteomics is the analysis of protein profiles from two or more samples (eg diseased vs healthy cells) to identify quantitative differences that could be responsible for observed phenotypes

comparative

Proteomics can identify _______ modifications that cannot be detected by transcriptome analysis

posttranslational

Proteins can be separated by two dimensional __________ or by Liquid Chromatography (FPLC, HPLC)

polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)

______ are identified by Mass spectrometry

Proteins

What is the identification and quantification of steady-state levels of intracellular metabolites (sugars, aa, lipids, nucleotieds etc)?

Metabolomics

Because the technology to identify every metabolite in a biological sample is not available, ________ is often carried out, where a few specific metabolites are measured

targeted metabolomics

Drug metabolism can take place anywhere in the body (plasma, kidney, lung, gut wall) but where is the prime site?

liver

An increase in DNA repair activity can ____ effectiveness of drugs that target DNA

decrease

What are the three potential outcomes of drug metabolism?

1) Increase in drug hydrophilicity and ability to be secreted (hepatic) 2) Metabolic products are less pharmacologically active than the substrate drug 3) Inactive prodrugs converted to their active dorms (hepatic)

What are the five mechanisms of drug resistance

1) decreased permeability 2) alteration of the target site for the drug 3) enzymatic inactivation of the drug 4) active transport of the drug out of the cell 5) amplification of the gene coding for the target of the drug

Multidrug resistance results from an increase in the amount of ____ that can pump many different drugs out of the cell

transporter proteins

Examples of water soluble vitamins and where are they stored?

Vit B & C | Not stored, excess secreted

Examples of fat soluble vitamins and where are they stored?

Vit A, D, E, K | in tissues

What do measurements of vitamin levels in the blood relate to?

recent intake

____ vitamins act as coenzymes in many metabolic pathways

water-soluble

The body has no storage capacity for water-soluble vitamins- except vitamin ____

B12

Can excess of B vitamins be toxic?

yes, evidence emerging

What happens to most vitamins before they become active?

modification

Lack of _____ causes angular stomatitis

riboflavin

What can cause biotin (B7) deficiency?

eating raw egg whites

What is needed indirectly for DNA synthesis?

folic acid

There is an _____ demand for folic acid during pregnancy

increased

What is one of the most common vitamin deficiencies?

Folic acid deficiency

Where is vitamin B12 concentrated in the body?

liver

Vitamin C deficiency causes ____ resulting in defective ____ synthesis

scurvy, collagen

Lack of this vitamin impairs immune function

vitamin C

______ soluble vitamins are not as readily absorbed as ____ soluble vitamins, but can be stored in tissues

fat, water

What fat soluble vitamins can be toxic in excess?

vit A & D

The functions of ____ and folic acid are interrelated

B12

Inhibitors of folate reduction are used as _______ (trimethoprim) and _____ (methotrexate)

antibiotics, cancer therapy

Which B vitamin is a coenzyme for carboxylations?

B1 (thiamin)

Which B vitamin is a coenzyme for transaminases?

Vitamin B2/B3 are conezymes for what reaction?

oxidoreductases

Which B vitamin is a coenzyme for carboxylases?

Biotin (B7)

Folic acid/B12 are conezymes for what reaction?

single carbon transfers

What vitamin is teratogenic and should be avoided during pregnancy?

Vitamin A

_______ acid is a signaling molecule that interacts with ligand-activated transcription factors

Retinoic

What does a deficiency in Vitamin A cause?

night blindness

What does vitamin D regulate?

calcium and phosphorous homeostasis

How is the majority of vitamin D produced?

UV exposure of skin

What climates have a difficult time getting sufficient vitamin D in the winter?

northern

What vitamin is necessary for blood coagulation?

vitamin K

What vitamin deficiency has a link to early childhood caries?

Vitamin D

What does a deficiency of vitamin D cause?

demineralizaition of bones with increased susceptibility to fractures

C3H6O3

Lactic Acid

What are the 4 essential processes needed to develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism?

1) Cell proliferation 2) Cell specialization 3) Cell interaction 4) Cell movement

What type of genes direct regions (segments) to differentiate into their final forms?

homeotic genes

Homeotic genes are arrayed on the chromosome in the _____ as they are expressed in developing embryos and in the same order in _______ and humans

same order, fruit flies

Genes can have complex expression patterns by having a series of control regions directing ____ in different regions of the oranism

transcription

Describes what a cell will become in the normal course of development

cell fate

A stable change that causes a restriction on a cells developmental potential.

cell determination

How do developmental genes compare between different organisms

similar

Leys Flashcards

(121 cards)