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Anatomy > Levels of Organization > Flashcards

Levels of Organization Flashcards

1
Q

chromatin

A

substance consisting of DNA and associated proteins

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2
Q

chromosome

A

condensed version of chromatin

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3
Q

DNA polymerase

A

enzyme that functions in adding new nucleotides to a growing strand of DNA during DNA replication

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4
Q

DNA replication

A

process of duplicating a molecule of DNA

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5
Q

genome

A

entire complement of an organism’s DNA; found within virtually every cell

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6
Q

helicase

A

enzyme that functions to separate the two DNA strands of a double helix during DNA replication

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7
Q

histone

A

family of proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus to form chromatin

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8
Q

nuclear envelope

A

membrane that surrounds the nucleus; consisting of a double lipid-bilayer

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9
Q

nuclear pore

A

one of the small, protein-lined openings found scattered throughout the nuclear envelope

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10
Q

nucleolus

A

small region of the nucleus that functions in ribosome synthesis

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11
Q

nucleosome

A

unit of chromatin consisting of a DNA strand wrapped around histone proteins

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12
Q

anatomy

A

science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures

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13
Q

gross anatomy

A

study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye; also referred to macroscopic anatomy

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14
Q

homeostasis

A

steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain

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15
Q

microscopic anatomy

A

study of very small structures of the body using magnification

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16
Q

physiology

A

science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions

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17
Q

regional anatomy

A

study of the structures that contribute to specific body regions

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18
Q

systemic anatomy

A

study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems

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19
Q

cell

A

smallest independently functioning unit of all organisms; in animals, a cell contains cytoplasm, composed of fluid and organelles

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20
Q

organ

A

functionally distinct structure composed of two or more types of tissues

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21
Q

organ system

A

group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function

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22
Q

organism

A

living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life

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23
Q

tissue

A

group of similar or closely related cells that act together to perform a specific function

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24
Q

anabolism

A

assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules

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25
Q

catabolism

A

breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules

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26
Q

development

A

changes an organism goes through during its life

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27
Q

differentiation

A

process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function

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28
Q

growth

A

process of increasing in size

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29
Q

metabolism

A

sum of all of the body’s chemical reactions

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30
Q

renewal

A

process by which worn-out cells are replaced

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31
Q

reproduction

A

process by which new organisms are generated

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32
Q

responsiveness

A

ability of an organisms or a system to adjust to changes in conditions

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33
Q

nutrient

A

chemical obtained from foods and beverages that is critical to human survival

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34
Q

pressure

A

force exerted by a substance in contact with another substance

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35
Q

control center

A

compares values to their normal range; deviations cause the activation of an effector

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36
Q

effector

A

organ that can cause a change in a value

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37
Q

negative feedback

A

homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilize an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus, typically as the stimulus is removed

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38
Q

normal range

A

range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center

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39
Q

positive feedback

A

mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus

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40
Q

sensor/recptor

A

reports a monitored physiological value to the control center

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41
Q

set point

A

ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis

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42
Q

abdominopelvic cavity

A

division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera

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43
Q

anatomical position

A

standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body

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44
Q

anterior

A

describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral

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45
Q

anterior cavity

A

larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as ventral cavity

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46
Q

caudal

A

describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as inferior

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47
Q

cranial/superior

A

describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as superior

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48
Q

cranial cavity

A

division of the posterior (dorsal) cavity that houses the brain

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49
Q

deep

A

describes a position farther from the surface of the body

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50
Q

distal

A

describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

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51
Q

dorsal cavity

A

posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to the posterior body cavity

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52
Q

frontal plane

A

two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions

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53
Q

inferior

A

describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as caudal

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54
Q

lateral

A

describes the side or direction toward the side of the body

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55
Q

medial

A

describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body

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56
Q

pericardium

A

sac that encloses the heart

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57
Q

peritoneum

A

serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs found there

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58
Q

plane

A

imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body

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59
Q

pleura

A

serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity and covers the lungs

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60
Q

posterior

A

describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as dorsal

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61
Q

posterior cavity

A

posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to as dorsal cavity

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62
Q

prone

A

face down

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63
Q

proximal

A

describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

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64
Q

sagittal plane

A

two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides

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65
Q

section

A

in anatomy, a single flat surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut through

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66
Q

serous membrane

A

membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serosa

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67
Q

serosa

A

membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serous membrane

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68
Q

spinal cavity

A

division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity

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69
Q

superficial

A

describes a position nearer to the surface of the body

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70
Q

superior

A

describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as cranial

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71
Q

supine

A

face up

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72
Q

thoracic cavity

A

division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus, and trachea

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73
Q

transverse plane

A

two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions

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74
Q

ventral

A

describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as anterior

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75
Q

ventral cavity

A

larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as anterior body cavity

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76
Q

computed tomography (CT)

A

medical imaging technique in which a computer-enhanced cross-sectional X-ray image is obtained

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77
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

medical imaging technique in which a device generates a magnetic field to obtain detailed sectional images of the internal structures of the body

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78
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

medical imaging technique in which radiopharmaceuticals are traced to reveal metabolic and physiological functions in tissues

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79
Q

ultrasonography

A

application of ultrasonic waves to visualize subcutaneous body structures such as tendons and organs

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80
Q

X-ray

A

form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases; used in medicine as a diagnostic aid to visualize body structures such as bones

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81
Q

atom

A

smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of that element

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82
Q

atomic number

A

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

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83
Q

compound

A

substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

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84
Q

electron

A

subatomic particle having a negative charge and nearly no mass; found orbiting the atom’s nucleus

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85
Q

electron shell

A

area of space a given distance from an atom’s nucleus in which electrons are grouped

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86
Q

element

A

substance that cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical means

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87
Q

isotope

A

one of the variations of an element in which the number of neutrons differ from each other

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88
Q

mass number

A

sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

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89
Q

matter

A

physical substance; that which occupies space and has mass

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90
Q

neutron

A

heavy subatomic particle having no electrical charge and found in the atom’s nucleus

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91
Q

proton

A

heavy subatomic particle having a positive charge and found in the atom’s nucleus

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92
Q

radioactive isotope

A

unstable, heavy isotope that gives off subatomic particles, or electromagnetic energy, as it decays; also called radioisotopes

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93
Q

valence shell

A

outermost electron shell of an atom

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94
Q

anion

A

atom with a negative charge

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95
Q

bond

A

electrical force linking atoms

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96
Q

cation

A

atom with a positive charge

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97
Q

covalent bond

A

chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons, thereby completing their valence shells

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98
Q

hydrogen bond

A

dipole-dipole bond in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is weakly attracted to a second electronegative atom

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99
Q

ion

A

atom with an overall positive or negative charge

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100
Q

ionic bond

A

attraction between an anion and a cation

101
Q

molecule

A

two or more atoms covalently bonded together

102
Q

polar molecule

A

molecule with regions that have opposite charges resulting from uneven numbers of electrons in the nuclei of the atoms participating in the covalent bond

103
Q

activation energy

A

amount of energy greater than the energy contained in the reactants, which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed

104
Q

catalyst

A

substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed in the process

105
Q

chemical energy

A

form of energy that is absorbed as chemical bonds form, stored as they are maintained, and released as they are broken

106
Q

decomposition reaction

A

type of catabolic reaction in which one or more bonds within a larger molecule are broken, resulting in the release of smaller molecules or atoms

107
Q

enzyme

A

protein or RNA that catalyzes chemical reactions

108
Q

exchange reaction

A

type of chemical reaction in which bonds are both formed and broken, resulting in the transfer of components

109
Q

reactant

A

one or more substances that enter into the reaction

110
Q

product

A

one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction

111
Q

synthesis reaction

A

type of anabolic reaction in which two or more atoms or molecules bond, resulting in the formation of a larger molecule

112
Q

acid

A

compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

113
Q

base

A

compound that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

114
Q

buffer

A

solution containing a weak acid or a weak base that opposes wide fluctuations in the pH of body fluids

115
Q

colloid

A

liquid mixture in which the solute particles consist of clumps of molecules large enough to scatter light

116
Q

inorganic compound

A

substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen

117
Q

organic compound

A

substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen

118
Q

pH

A

negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a solution

119
Q

solution

A

homogeneous liquid mixture in which a solute is dissolved into molecules within a solvent

120
Q

suspension

A

liquid mixture in which particles distributed in the liquid settle out over time

121
Q

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

nucleotide containing ribose and an adenine base that is essential in energy transfer

122
Q

amino acid

A

building block of proteins; characterized by an amino and carboxyl functional groups and a variable side-chain

123
Q

carbohydrate

A

class of organic compounds built from sugars, molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1-2-1 ratio

124
Q

denaturation

A

change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means

125
Q

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

deoxyribose-containing nucleotide that stores genetic information

126
Q

disaccharide

A

pair of carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via a glycosidic bond

127
Q

disulfide bond

A

covalent bond formed within a polypeptide between sulfide groups of sulfur-containing amino acids, for example, cysteine

128
Q

functional group

A

group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds that tends to behave as a distinct unit in chemical reactions with other atoms

129
Q

lipid

A

class of nonpolar organic compounds built from hydrocarbons and distinguished by the fact that they are not soluble in water

130
Q

macromolecule

A

large molecule formed by covalent bonding

131
Q

monosaccharide

A

monomer of carbohydrate; also known as a simple sugar

132
Q

nucleotide

A

class of organic compounds composed of one or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar, and a base

133
Q

peptide bond

A

covalent bond formed by dehydration synthesis between two amino acids

134
Q

phospholipid

A

a lipid compound in which a phosphate group is combined with a diglyceride

135
Q

phosphorylation

A

addition of one or more phosphate groups to an organic compound

136
Q

polysaccharide

A

compound consisting of more than two carbohydrate monomers bonded by dehydration synthesis via glycosidic bonds

137
Q

prostaglandin

A

lipid compound derived from fatty acid chains and important in regulating several body processes

138
Q

protein

A

class of organic compounds that are composed of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

139
Q

purine

A

nitrogen-containing base with a double ring structure; adenine and guanine

140
Q

pyrimidine

A

nitrogen-containing base with a single ring structure; cytosine, thiamine, and uracil

141
Q

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

ribose-containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic code as protein

142
Q

steroid

A

(also, sterol) lipid compound composed of four hydrocarbon rings bonded to a variety of other atoms and molecules

143
Q

substrate

A

reactant in an enzymatic reaction

144
Q

triglyceride

A

lipid compound composed of a glycerol molecule bonded with three fatty acid chains

145
Q

active transport

A

form of transport across the cell membrane that requires input of cellular energy

146
Q

amphipathic

A

describes a molecule that exhibits a difference in polarity between its two ends, resulting in a difference in water solubility

147
Q

cell membrane

A

membrane surrounding all animal cells, composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with various molecules; also known as plasma membrane

148
Q

channel protein

A

membrane-spanning protein that has an inner pore which allows the passage of one or more substances

149
Q

concentration gradient

A

difference in the concentration of a substance between two regions

150
Q

diffusion

A

movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration

151
Q

endocytosis

A

import of material into the cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle

152
Q

exocytosis

A

export of a substance out of a cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle

153
Q

extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

fluid exterior to cells; includes the interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and fluid found in other reservoirs in the body

154
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

diffusion of a substance with the aid of a membrane protein

155
Q

glycocalyx

A

coating of sugar molecules that surrounds the cell membrane

156
Q

glycoprotein

A

protein that has one or more carbohydrates attached

157
Q

hydrophilic

A

describes a substance or structure attracted to water

158
Q

hydrophobic

A

describes a substance or structure repelled by water

159
Q

hypertonic

A

describes a solution concentration that is higher than a reference concentration

160
Q

hypotonic

A

describes a solution concentration that is lower than a reference concentration

161
Q

integral protein

A

membrane-associated protein that spans the entire width of the lipid bilayer

162
Q

interstitial fluid (IF)

A

fluid in the small spaces between cells not contained within blood vessels

163
Q

intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

fluid in the cytosol of cells

164
Q

isotonic

A

describes a solution concentration that is the same as a reference concentration

165
Q

ligand

A

molecule that binds with specificity to a specific receptor molecule

166
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of molecules down their concentration across a selectively permeable membrane

167
Q

passive transport

A

form of transport across the cell membrane that does not require input of cellular energy

168
Q

peripheral protein

A

membrane-associated protein that does not span the width of the lipid bilayer, but is attached peripherally to integral proteins, membrane lipids, or other components of the membrane

169
Q

phagocytosis

A

endocytosis of large particles

170
Q

pinocytosis

A

endocytosis of fluid

171
Q

receptor

A

protein molecule that contains a binding site for another specific molecule (called a ligand)

172
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

endocytosis of ligands attached to membrane-bound receptors

173
Q

selective permeability

A

feature of any barrier that allows certain substances to cross but excludes others

174
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

(also, Na+/K+ ATP-ase) membrane-embedded protein pump that uses ATP to move Na+ out of a cell and K+ into the cell

175
Q

vesicle

A

membrane-bound structure that contains materials within or outside of the cell

176
Q

autolysis

A

breakdown of cells by their own enzymatic action

177
Q

autophagy

A

lysosomal breakdown of a cell’s own components

178
Q

centriole

A

small, self-replicating organelle that provides the origin for microtubule growth and moves DNA during cell division

179
Q

cilia

A

small appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement of materials across the cellular surface

180
Q

cytoplasm

A

internal material between the cell membrane and nucleus of a cell, mainly consisting of a water-based fluid called cytosol, within which are all the other organelles and cellular solute and suspended materials

181
Q

cytoskeleton

A

“skeleton” of a cell; formed by rod-like proteins that support the cell’s shape and provide, among other functions, locomotive abilities

182
Q

cytosol

A

clear, semi-fluid medium of the cytoplasm, made up mostly of water

183
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

cellular organelle that consists of interconnected membrane-bound tubules, which may or may not be associated with ribosomes (rough type or smooth type, respectively)

184
Q

flagellum

A

appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement

185
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

cellular organelle formed by a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that functions in protein modification, tagging, packaging, and transport

186
Q

intermediate filament

A

type of cytoskeletal filament made of keratin, characterized by an intermediate thickness, and playing a role in resisting cellular tension

187
Q

lysosome

A

membrane-bound cellular organelle originating from the Golgi apparatus and containing digestive enzymes

188
Q

microfilament

A

the thinnest of the cytoskeletal filaments; composed of actin subunits that function in muscle contraction and cellular structural support

189
Q

microtubule

A

the thickest of the cytoskeletal filaments, composed of tubulin subunits that function in cellular movement and structural support

190
Q

mitochondrion

A

one of the cellular organelles bound by a double lipid bilayer that function primarily in the production of cellular energy (ATP)

191
Q

mutation

A

change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA

192
Q

nucleus

A

cell’s central organelle; contains the cell’s DNA

193
Q

organelle

A

any of several different types of membrane-enclosed specialized structures in the cell that perform specific functions for the cell

194
Q

peroxisome

A

membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes primarily responsible for detoxifying harmful substances

195
Q

reactive oxygen species (ROS)

A

a group of extremely reactive peroxides and oxygen-containing radicals that may contribute to cellular damage

196
Q

ribosome

A

cellular organelle that functions in protein synthesis

197
Q

anticodon

A

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to a specific codon on an mRNA molecule

198
Q

codon

A

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on an mRNA molecule that corresponds to a specific amino acid

199
Q

exon

A

one of the coding regions of an mRNA molecule that remain after splicing

200
Q

gene

A

functional length of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein

201
Q

gene expression

A

active interpretation of the information coded in a gene to produce a functional gene product

202
Q

intron

A

non-coding regions of a pre-mRNA transcript that may be removed during splicing

203
Q

messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

nucleotide molecule that serves as an intermediate in the genetic code between DNA and protein

204
Q

polypeptide

A

chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

205
Q

polyribosome

A

simultaneous translation of a single mRNA transcript by multiple ribosomes

206
Q

promoter

A

region of DNA that signals transcription to begin at that site within the gene

207
Q

proteome

A

full complement of proteins produced by a cell (determined by the cell’s specific gene expression)

208
Q

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

RNA that makes up the subunits of a ribosome

209
Q

RNA polymerase

A

enzyme that unwinds DNA and then adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA for the transcription phase of protein synthesis

210
Q

spliceosome

A

complex of enzymes that serves to splice out the introns of a pre-mRNA transcript

211
Q

splicing

A

the process of modifying a pre-mRNA transcript by removing certain, typically non-coding, regions

212
Q

transcription

A

process of producing an mRNA molecule that is complementary to a particular gene of DNA

213
Q

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

molecules of RNA that serve to bring amino acids to a growing polypeptide strand and properly place them into the sequence

214
Q

translation

A

process of producing a protein from the nucleotide sequence code of an mRNA transcript

215
Q

triplet

A

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on a DNA molecule that, when transcribed into an mRNA codon, corresponds to a particular amino acid

216
Q

anaphase

A

third stage of mitosis (and meiosis), during which sister chromatids separate into two new nuclear regions of a dividing cell

217
Q

cell cycle

A

life cycle of a single cell, from its birth until its division into two new daughter cells

218
Q

centromere

A

region of attachment for two sister chromatids

219
Q

centrosome

A

cellular structure that organizes microtubules during cell division

220
Q

checkpoint

A

progress point in the cell cycle during which certain conditions must be met in order for the cell to proceed to a subsequence phase

221
Q

cleavage furrow

A

contractile ring that forms around a cell during cytokinesis that pinches the cell into two halves

222
Q

cyclin

A

one of a group of proteins that function in the progression of the cell cycle

223
Q

cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

A

one of a group of enzymes associated with cyclins that help them perform their functions

224
Q

cytokinesis

A

final stage in cell division, where the cytoplasm divides to form two separate daughter cells

225
Q

diploid

A

condition marked by the presence of a double complement of genetic material (two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each of two parents)

226
Q

G0 phase

A

phase of the cell cycle, usually entered from the G1 phase; characterized by long or permanent periods where the cell does not move forward into the DNA synthesis phase

227
Q

G1 phase

A

first phase of the cell cycle, after a new cell is born

228
Q

G2 phase

A

third phase of the cell cycle, after the DNA synthesis phase

229
Q

homologous

A

describes two copies of the same chromosome (not identical), one inherited from each parent

230
Q

interphase

A

entire life cycle of a cell, excluding mitosis

231
Q

kinetochore

A

region of a centromere where microtubules attach to a pair of sister chromatids

232
Q

metaphase

A

second stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by the linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell

233
Q

metaphase plate

A

linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell, which takes place during metaphase

234
Q

mitosis

A

division of genetic material, during which the cell nucleus breaks down and two new, fully functional, nuclei are formed

235
Q

mitotic phase

A

phase of the cell cycle in which a cell undergoes mitosis

236
Q

mitotic spindle

A

network of microtubules, originating from centrioles, that arranges and pulls apart chromosomes during mitosis

237
Q

prophase

A

first stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope and condensing of the chromatin to form chromosomes

238
Q

S phase

A

stage of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs

239
Q

sister chromatid

A

one of a pair of identical chromosomes, formed during DNA replication

240
Q

somatic cell

A

all cells of the body excluding gamete cells

241
Q

telophase

A

final stage of mitosis (and meiosis), preceding cytokinesis, characterized by the formation of two new daughter nuclei

242
Q

multipotent

A

describes the condition of being able to differentiate into different types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages, such as a red blood cell or white blood cell

243
Q

oligopotent

A

describes the condition of being more specialized than multipotency; the condition of being able to differentiate into one of a few possible cell types

244
Q

pluripotent

A

describes the condition of being able to differentiate into a large variety of cell types

245
Q

stem cell

A

cell that is oligo-, multi-, or pleuripotent that has the ability to produce additional stem cells rather than becoming further specialized

246
Q

totipotent

A

embryonic cells that have the ability to differentiate into any type of cell and organ in the body

247
Q

transcription factor

A

one of the proteins that regulate the transcription of genes

248
Q

unipotent

A

describes the condition of being committed to a single specialized cell type

Anatomy (2 decks)

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