Lesson 3.1: The History of the Computer Flashcards
First Generation (1946–1959)
Vacuum Tubes (1946–1959)
ENIAC emerged in 1946 as a 30-ton machine with 18,000 vacuum tubes. When it was first being used, lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia.
The first-generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and they were often enormous in size. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. They often malfunctioned because of the excessive heat they generated.
This generation of computers relied on machine languages, the lowest-level programming languages understood by computers. They could run one program at a time and it took a long time, sometimes weeks, to set up a different program. Punched cards were used for input, and the computers printed out the outputs. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer), IBM-701, and IBM-650 are other notable first-generation computers.
Vacuum tubes were the only electronic components available during the first generation of computers and could complete calculations within milliseconds. However, vacuum tubes were large, had limited storage capacity, were unreliable, and required a lot of maintenance.
Second Generation (1959–1965)
Transistors (1959–1965)
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. Transistors were more reliable and economical. The smaller electronic components in the second generation could maintain two states, “Off” and “On,” represented by the binary digits 0 and 1, respectively. Although transistors were invented in 1947, it took almost a decade for them to find their place in computer hardware.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. Tapes and disks were used for storage purposes. The first computers of this generation were built for the atomic energy industry and included Honeywell 400, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and UNIVAC 1108.
Over 100 computer programming languages were developed to work with second-generation computers. Machine languages representing instructions in binary (0s and 1s) were replaced by assembly languages that specified instructions using words. High-level programming languages were also developed, such as early versions of FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) and COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language).
While these computers were smaller in size, used less energy, and were easier to move, they were used for specific purposes and still required cooling systems and constant maintenance.
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1965–1971)
The invention of integrated circuits enabled the development of computer systems that were cheaper, faster, smaller, and more reliable. Integrated circuits miniaturized transistors and placed them on silicon chips called semiconductors.
Users interacted with third-generation computers using keyboards and monitors that communicated with the other components of the hardware and operating systems. Operating systems made it possible for computers to run multiple applications at the same time and to share memory and other resources. The computational time was reduced from milliseconds to nanoseconds. While integrated circuits increased computing power, they were complicated to manufacture, difficult to maintain, and required air conditioning to keep the computers cool enough to run. Examples of third-generation computers include the PDP-8, PDP-11, ICL 2900, IBM 360, and IBM 370.
Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971–Present)
Microprocessors include thousands of integrated circuits on a single silicon chip. They created the fourth generation of computers. This generation of computers is characterized by a significant reduction in processor size and, at the same time, a significant increase in capabilities. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, included all the components of the computer on a single chip. It powered the Busicom calculator and paved the way for the personal computer. The first IBM computer for home use was available in 1981, followed by Apple’s Macintosh computer in 1984. Fourth-generation computers also saw the development of graphical user interfaces, the mouse, and handheld devices. Several operating systems, such as MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows, were developed during this time period.
Fourth-generation computers are more reliable than their predecessors, calculate in picoseconds (one trillionth of a second), use high-level languages, and are portable and economical.
Emerging Fifth-Generation Computers
Artificial Intelligence———-
The fifth generation started in the early 1980s when microprocessor chips were able to accommodate tens of millions of electronic components using ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI). These computers are based on parallel processing (multiple programs running concurrently) and artificial intelligence (AI) software. They support the development of artificial intelligence and natural language processing while using principles of robotics, neural networks, expert systems, and natural language understanding and generation.
Quantum computing, molecular technology, and nanotechnology are expected to significantly contribute to the abilities of fifth-generation computers. Fifth-generation computing devices will be able to respond to natural language input and are capable of learning. Emerging technologies may advance computers in unimaginable directions. Research efforts and experiments coupled with emerging technologies provide glimpses into the computers of the future.
Quantum Computing——————
Quantum computing is the study of a non-classical model of computation. It is said to be more efficient than modern computing through the use of quantum tunneling. Quantum computers are expected to reduce power consumption from 100 to 1,000 times and will allow computing to surpass any and all limits that traditional computing has set.
Nanotechnology————————–
Nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing involves the use of nanoscale (extremely small) tools and nonbiological processes to build structures, devices, and systems at the molecular level. It is a technology based on the ability to build structures to complex, atomic specifications by means of mechanosynthesis, or reaction outcomes determined by the use of mechanical constraints. Nanotechnology is a very diverse field, which is having a bigger and bigger impact on the world. It has applications in medicine, cars, spacecraft, food, electronics, and materials science just to name a few.
