Lesson 3: Immigration in the Age of Bipartisan Consensus (1962-1979) Flashcards
- The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act and its Impact on Immigration Flows
1.1. The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act
What did this Act entail?
Commonwealth Immigrants Bill introduced by Macmillan’s Conservative government (autumn 1961).
Introduced controls on Commonwealth immigrants, with the exception of:
- People born in the UK
- People holding a UK passport issued by the UK government
- People holding a Republic of Ireland passport
- Anyone included in the passport of a, b or c
For those subject to controls, entry to the UK conditioned on the obtention of employment vouchers:
- Category A: For those promised a specific job by a specific employer
- Category B: Skilled individuals, in specific under-staffed areas of the British economy
- Category C: all unskilled workers without a job in the UK.
- Quotas set for each category (could be revised each year).
- First placed at 20,800 for categories A and B together, and at 10,000 a year for category C.
- The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act and its Impact on Immigration Flows
1.1. The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act
How can we account for this restrictive turn after decades of liberal policy concerning Commonwealth immigration? / Why were controls finally introduced?
Political reasons: responding to local and grassroots demands:
- Growing anti-immigrants sentiment
- 1959 General Election: a few more MPs in favour of controls on immigration.
- Polls showing wide support for immigration controls:
–> Gallup Poll, May 1961: 73% of respondents in favour of controls
–> Early 1962: Approval of the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Bill at between 62 and 67%.
- Advocates of controls better organised locally (cf. Birmingham Immigration Control Association founded 1960)
Economic reasons:
- End of post-war prosperity
- Important workforce no longer required
- Too much unskilled labour considered a liability
International politics:
- Decolonisation
- Old Dominions increasingly relying on bilateral relations with their geographical neighbours rather than Britain
- UK turning to the EEC (negociations started)
=> Less important to maintain special link with Commonwealth through open-door policy.
- The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act and its Impact on Immigration Flows
1.1. The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act
Could the Act be considered racist?
- Cf. J. Solomos: the law as outcome of “a policy debate on the formulation of legislation to exclude black workers from entry and settlement”. (Race and Racism in Britain (1989), 2003, p. 57)
- No doubt the aim of this legislation was to reduce New Commonwealth immigration. Cf. William Deedes (Minister without Portfolio under Macmillan):
- -> The Bill’s real purpose was to restrict the influx of coloured immigrants. We were reluctant to say as much openly. So the restrictions were applied to coloured and white citizens in all Commonwealth countries – though everybody recognised that immigration from Canada, Australia and New Zealand formed no part of the problem. (quoted by J. Solomos, p. 56)
- Bill criticised in Parliament by Labour for being discriminatory (and detrimental to relations with New Commonwealth). Cf. Hugh Gaitskell’s speech:
- -> Do the Government deal with [integration difficulties] by seeking to combat social evils, by building more houses and enforcing laws against overcrowding, by using every educational means at their disposal to create tolerance and mutual understanding, and by emphasising to our own people the value of these immigrants and setting their face firmly against all forms of racial intolerance and discrimination[?] […] There is no shred of evidence that the Government have even seriously tried to go along this course and make a proper inquiry into the nature of this problem. They have yielded to the crudest clamour, ‘Keep them out’. (Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 649, col. 801, 16 Nov. 1961)
- Exclusion of the Irish from immigration controls:
- -> Seen by many as proof of discriminatory intention
- -> But: Economic and practical considerations
- -> And many Conservatives would have been more inclined to introduce exceptions for the Old Commonwealth than for the Irish (often perceived as disloyal in the wake of WW2).
- The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act was not formally targeted at non-white immigration.
- However, residents of the Old Commonwealth were more likely to be exempted from controls or to qualify for skilled employment vouchers.
- Liberal aspects of the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act:
- -> Under the quotas initially set, between 30,000 and 40,000 labour immigrants could enter the UK each year.
- -> Family reunification guaranteed under the act.
- The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act and its Impact on Immigration Flows
- Post-1962 Immigration Flows
Shift from a temporary labour migration of male workers to the permanent settlement of families :
- Return migration decreased (the “myth of return”, O. Estèves)
- Family reunification guaranteed under the 1962 Act:
–> Statutory right of admittance for wives and children under 16 of Commonwealth citizen resident in Britain
–> Liberal application of the act: children up to 18 commonly admitted without a voucher, as well as fiancées and children coming to join close relatives other than their parents.
Shift from an immigration primarily originating in the Caribbean to an immigration primarily originating in South Asia:
- More important reserves of would-be migrants in South Asia than in the West Indies
- Family reunification:
–> West Indians had often arrived as families before 1962
–> South Asian communities almost exclusively male before 1962
–> Dependents admitted in Britain after 1962 disproportionately came from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
The 1962 Act did not cause a significant decrease in Commonwealth immigration, but changed its characteristics.
- The ‘Package Deal’ on Immigration: Restrictions and Equal Rights
- 1962: Labour opposed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act
- Labour in government under Harold Wilson’s premiership, from October 1964 to June 1970: further restrictions on Commonwealth immigration.
- The ‘Package Deal’ on Immigration: Restrictions and Equal Rights
2.1. Labour’s New Agenda on Immigration
What were the causes for the shift in Labour’s policy on immigration?
- Hugh Gaitskell’s death, January 1963
- Trade Unions’ influence
- 1964 General Election in Smethwick constituency
- -> Labour incumbent Patrick Gordon Walker (senior frontbencher) unexpectedly beaten by Conservative Peter Griffiths following an aggressive campaign focused on immigration (“If you want a nigger neighbour, vote Liberal or Labour”).
- -> Shock and revulsion among Labour MPs, starting with Wilson.
- -> Resolution to address situation of immigrants in British society.
- The ‘Package Deal’ on Immigration: Restrictions and Equal Rights
2.1. Labour’s New Agenda on Immigration
What did Labour’s dual policy entail?
Labour’s dual policy: combining further restrictions on Commonwealth immigration with anti-discrimination legislation.
- Objective: improve relations between immigrants and indigenous communities.
–> Idea that a controlled immigration would cause less animosity and bring less community segregation.
- Other objective: forge bipartisan agreement (cf. Labour’s very small majority of only 4 seats from 1964 to 1966)
=> Immigration controls and a bill prohibiting racial discrimination were introduced in Parliament together in March 1965.
- The ‘Package Deal’ on Immigration: Restrictions and Equal Rights
- Toughening Controls on Commonwealth Migrants
White Paper “Immigration from the Commonwealth”, Aug. 1965:
- Abolition of category C vouchers
- Total number of vouchers issued under the other 2 categories down to 8,500 per year
- No more than 15% of category A vouchers per country
- End to practice of allowing children aged between 16 and 18 to join their parents, or of allowing in nephews and cousins.
- reduced the number of potential labour migrants
- confirmed earlier shifts in the nature and origins of immigration flows:
–> Preference given to skilled migrants favoured South Asians over West Indians.
–> Vouchers given to heads of households: each voucher added on average 3.7 persons to the UK’s population.
–> With so few vouchers, migration from 1965 onwards was dominated by family reunification – and newly arriving dependents were mainly South Asian women and children.
Reactions to White Paper:
- Hostility in the liberal press (e.g. The New Statesman), in immigrant communities, in the backbenches.
- Viewed very favourably by voters and the public: cf. - - - Gallup opinion poll: approval rate for the white paper at 87%
- Welcomed by Conservative MPs
Further restrictions introduced in the 1960s-1970s:
Under Labour:
- The second Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1968.
- The Immigration Appeals Act, 1969:
–> System of appeals to ensure restrictions applied fairly
–> Institutionalisation of deportation for illegal immigrants
–> Entry certificate made compulsory for dependents seeking settlement in Britain.
Under the Conservatives:
- The 1971 Immigration Act
- Voucher system terminated in 1972
From 1963 to 1972, number of vouchers allocated fell from 30,130 to 2,290.
- Clear continuity between Labour and Conservative policy on restricting Commonwealth immigration to the UK.
- 1971: hardly any difference left between Commonwealth citizens and aliens in terms of access to the UK.
- The ‘Package Deal’ on Immigration: Restrictions and Equal Rights
- Anti-Discrimination Legislation
Wilson’s government coupled restrictions on immigration with anti-discrimination legislation:
- The first Race Relations Act, 1965:
–> Outlawed discrimination in public places: = the end of the “colour bar”
–> Outlawed incitement to racial hatred
–> Established the Race Relations Board (but limited powers)
–> No provision to address discrimination in housing and employment.
- Important discrimination in employment, housing, the provision of goods and services remained, as shown in 1966 by a study conducted by the Institute of Race Relations.
- The second Race Relations Act, 1968 extended the provisions of the 1965 legislation
–> Also outlawed discrimination in housing, employment, and the provision of goods and services
–> Race Relations Board empowered to bring cases to court
–> Established the Community Relations Commission
Non-white minorities continued to experience widespread discrimination:
- Important limitation to previous legislation: relied on individual complaints.
- Survey by the Political and Economic Planning and Research Services, 1970s:
–> Asians and West Indians faced with discrimination in 1/3 or half of cases when applying for an unskilled job
–> Contrasted with low number of complaints (150) received by the Race Relations Board in 1973.
- Concentration of ethnic minorities in least favoured public housing projects.
The third Race Relations Act (1976) replaced the provisions of the first two laws:
- Prohibited discrimination on the grounds of colour, race, nationality, ethnic or national origin in employment, housing, education, the provision of goods and services, but also in advertisements
- Also covered indirect discrimination.
- Replaced the Race Relations Board and Community Relations Commission by the Commission for Racial Equality (remained in activity until 2007: incorporated in the Commission for Equality and Human Rights)
- Did not introduce positive discrimination
- Love Thy Neighbour: Turning Racism into Laughing Matter
- Sitcom created by Vince Powell and Harry Driver, broadcast on ITV from 1972 to 1976.
- Extremely popular with British audiences.
- Also commonly criticised for the way black people were referred to in the series.
= the first sitcom to tackle race relations as the central theme. - Aim of the sitcom: to amuse, but also to help the spectators go beyond their own prejudices through humour?
- A politically incorrect sitcom: helped to popularise insulting terms (‘wog’, ‘coon’, ‘Sambo’…)
- The product of a very specific historical context: after Race Relations legislation had been introduced, but not much scrutiny yet paid to how minorities are portrayed and referred to.
- Relations between ethnic groups as a possible laughing matter.
- The East African Asian Crises of 1968 and 1972
Overview
- East African Asians
- -> Numbers increased from the second half of the 19th century
- -> Arrived as unskilled manual workers (“coolies”) or traders
- -> Important social mobility: after WW2, were employed in the police forces, the bureaucracy and in professional jobs.
- -> Resentment in local African communities
- -> Most acute crises in Kenya and Uganda.
- The Kenyan crisis (1968)
- The Ugandan crisis (1972)
- The East African Asian Crises of 1968 and 1972
4.1. The Kenyan crisis
Overview
Kenyan independence, 1963: c. 185,000 Asians and 42,000 Europeans.
- Large majority of Asians never obtained Kenyan citizenship (did not apply for it, or application not processed)
- Africanisation policy => marginalisation of Asians in the economy (work permits required from 1967, Asians sacked from civil service, etc.)
A majority of Asians decided to leave Kenya, many for Britain:
- Early 1967: c. 1,000 Kenyan Asians arriving per month
- Late 1967: c. 2,000 Kenyan Asians arriving per month
- 1967: c. 13,600 Kenyan Asians arrived in Britain in just one year.
Late 1967: anxiety in Britain about Kenyan Asians
- Stories of Kenyan Asians “flooding” in the UK dominated the news
- Wide support for restrictions on their entry in the British population
- British government concerned numbers might reach 100,000.
Late Feb. 1968: James Callaghan (Labour Home Secretary) announced legislation to limit entry of Kenyan Asians in Britain.
- Caused a panic in Kenya
- Legislation passed swiftly through Parliament
- The East African Asian Crises of 1968 and 1972
4.1. The Kenyan crisis
Why did Kenyan Asians arrive in such numbers in spite of the 1962 legislation?
Historiographical debate:
- An exception made for them / a promise by the Macmillan government?
- A mere loophole in the legislation?
- Hansen:
- -> Passports issued by the High Commissioner in Kenya, ie under the authority of London => were free from controls
- -> Promises were made to the Asian communities in Kenya
- Many Kenyan Asians were not immigrants like any other as they lacked any other citizenship than CUKC => Being refused entry in Britain made them effectively stateless.
- The East African Asian Crises of 1968 and 1972
4.1. The Kenyan crisis
The Kenyan crisis and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act (1968)
The Commonwealth Immigrants Act (1 March 1968) added an additional condition for Commonwealth citizens willing to settle in the UK:
- Commonwealth citizens had to hold a passport issued under the authority of London AND either they or at least one parent or grandparent had to be born, adopted or naturalized in the UK.
–> Right to enter the UK effectively withdrawn from most East African Asians.
- Quota of 1,500 Kenyan Asian heads of households and dependents (around 6,000) allowed in each year
–> Immigration of East African Asians not terminated, but phased out: March 1968-June 1975: over 83,000 were admitted in the UK.
The Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1968: one of the most polemical pieces of legislation passed in the UK
- Justified by Callaghan by the fact that limiting numbers of East African Asians admitted was essential to preserve harmonious race relations.
- Viewed very favourably by British public opinion at the time
BUT criticized by some on several grounds:
- For having a racialist dimension
- For being passed as a response to xenophobic hysteria
- For implying coming back upon a pledge
- For representing a breach of international law.
- The East African Asian Crises of 1968 and 1972
4. 2. The Ugandan Crisis, 1972
Approximately 73,000 Asians in Uganda:
- Skilled, professional class
- Faced with discriminatory measures after independence (1962)
Jan. 1971, Idi Amin’s coup
=> expulsion order in Aug. 1972, giving Asians 3 months to leave.
Situation dealt with very differently from the Kenyan crisis:
- Heath declared that the British government would accept full responsibility for CUKC Asians with British passports
- Efforts to convince other countries to welcome refugees
- Airlifts
- Ugandan Resettlement Board.
=> 28,000 Ugandan Asians settled permanently in the UK.
