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Biology topic 5 - Body systems > Lesson 3: Defence against disease > Flashcards

Lesson 3: Defence against disease Flashcards

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1
Q

What are pathogens?

A

organisms that cause disease

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2
Q

What are the different types of pathogens?

A
  • bacteria
  • fungi
  • protists
  • viruses
  • prions
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3
Q

How is bacteria harmful?

A

Produce toxins that damage body cells.

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4
Q

How is fungi harmful?

A

Digest living cells to destroy them. Some also produce toxins.

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5
Q

How is protist harmful?

A

Take over cells and break them open.

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6
Q

How are viruses harmful?

A

Use host cells to replicate before bursting out and destroying cells.

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7
Q

How are prions harmful?

A

causes degeneration of the nervous system

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8
Q

What color is gram positive bacteria after gram staining?

A

blue-purple

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9
Q

What color is gram negative bacteria after gram staining?

A

red

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10
Q

What are the two main defence mechanisms against pathogens?

A

non-specific and specific

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11
Q

What is non-specific defence?

A

response is the same for all pathogens

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12
Q

What is specific defence?

A

response is specific to each pathogen

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13
Q

What are some physical and chemical barriers against pathogens?

A

Skin - physical barrier but also produces sebum which inhibits growth of pathogens

Mucous membranes - traps pathogens and uses lysozymes to destroy them.

Skin flora - large population of natural and healthy bacteria that outcompete pathogens for surface area.

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14
Q

How does blood clot?

A
  • Damaged cells release chemicals that stimulate platelets to adhere to damaged area.
  • damaged cells and platelets release chemicals called clotting factors that convert prothrombin (clotting protein) into thrombin.
  • Thrombin is an active enzyme that catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen (another clotting protein) into insoluble fibrin which is a fibrous protein that forms a mesh-like network to stabilize the platelet plug.
  • More and more cellular debris becomes trapped in the fibrin mesh until stable clot is formed.
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15
Q

What are the differences between innate and adaptive immune systems?

A

Innate:
* present from birth
* provides rapid
* non-specific defences against pathogens.
* Mediated by phagocytes.
Adaptive:
* Develops during our lives
* slower
* specific
* mediated by lymphocytes

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16
Q

What is the role of phagocytes?

A

engulf and destroy pathogens

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17
Q

What are the two main types of phagocytes?

A

neutrophils and macrophages

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18
Q

What are the stages of phagocytosis?

A

The pathogen releases chemicals that attract a phagocyte.
The phagocyte recognises the pathogen’s antigens as non-self. This causes the phagocyte to bind to the pathogen.
The phagocyte engulfs the pathogen.
The pathogen is now contained within a vacuole known as a ‘phagosome’.
The lysosome, containing lysozymes, fuses with the phagosome to form a phagolysosome.
The phagocyte presents the pathogen’s antigens on its surface to activate other cells in the immune system. The phagocyte is then referred to as an antigen-presenting cell (APC).

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19
Q

When is the adaptive immune system needed?

A

Innate immune system is unable to control an infection.

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20
Q

What are the two main types of lymphocytes?

A

B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes

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21
Q

Where do B lymphocytes mature?

A

bone marrow

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22
Q

Where do T lymphocytes mature?

A

thymus gland

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23
Q

What system plays a role in the immune response of the body?

A

lymphatic system

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24
Q

Where can you usually find lymphocytes after maturation?

A

Some of them remain in circulation while others are concentrated in the secondary lymphoid organs

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25
Q

What immunity are T lymphocytes involved in?

A

cell-mediated immunity

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26
Q

What response are B lymphocytes involved in?

A

humoral response

27
Q

What are the types of T cells/lymphocytes?

A

T helper cells
T killer cells
T regulator cells
T memory cells

28
Q

What are the functions of T killer cells?

A

kill abnormal and foreign cells by producing a protein known as perforin which makes holes in the cell-surface membrane, causing it to become freely permeable and causing cell death.

29
Q

What are the function(s) of T regulator cells?

A

suppress the immune system after pathogens have been destroyed

30
Q

What are the function(s) of T memory cells?

A

provide a rapid response if the body is re-infected by the same pathogen.

31
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Y-shaped proteins that bind to a specific antigen that has triggered an immune response.

32
Q

What is the structure of antibodies?

A

2 heavy chains bonded to 2 light chains through disulphide bridges

33
Q

What mechanism do antibodies bind to antigens with?

A

lock and key

34
Q

What is the binding site on antibodies called?

A

variable region

35
Q

What is the function of hinge regions on antibodies?

A

allows flexibility, meaning two antigens can bind at once.

36
Q

What is formed when an antibody binds to an antigen?

A

antigen-antibody complex

37
Q

What are the 3 ways antibodies can defend against pathogens?

A

opsonin
agglutinins
anti-toxins

38
Q

What is the opsonins method?

A

bind to and ‘tag’ pathogens, making them recognisable to phagocytes.

39
Q

What is the agglutinins method?

A

causes pathogens to clump together

40
Q

What is the anti-toxins method?

A

binds to toxins and making them harmless.

41
Q

Which response requires the production of antibodies, humoral or cellular?

A

humoral

42
Q

Stages of humoral response

A
  • Helper T-cells are stimulated by APCs and release interleukins.
  • Colonal selection - stimulates selected B cell to clone by mitosis
  • Clonal expansion - clones differentiate into plasma cells or memory cells
  • Primary immune response - plasma cells produce antibodies
  • Secondary immune response - memory cells circulate the blood and is ready to divide if body encounters the same pathogen.
43
Q

How is HIV transmitted?

A
  • unprotected sex
  • blood transfusions
  • breastfeeding
44
Q

What are the effects of HIV?

A

t-helper cells are killed which is used to activate B-cells which produce antibodies, therefore victims develop a weak immune system (AIDS stage) and die due to inability to fight off diseases.

45
Q

What is one way of determining the progression of HIV?

A

measure the helper T-cell count

46
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

drugs used to treat bacterial infections.

47
Q

What are the two types of antibiotics?

A

Bactericidal
Bacteriostatic

48
Q

How do bacteriostatic antibiotics work?

A

slow the growth or reproduction of bacteria.

49
Q

How do bactericidal antibiotics work?

A

kill bacterial cells

50
Q

What can antibiotics target in bacteria?

A

protein synthesis
membrane integrity
cell wall

51
Q

What is antibiotic resistance?

A

bacteria with resistance to antibiotics due to genetic mutation

52
Q

What are the steps of achieving antibiotic resistance?

A
  • Genetic mutations occur, making some bacteria resistant to an antibiotic.
  • When an infection is treated with antibiotics, resistant bacteria are able to survive.
  • Resistant bacteria reproduce, passing on the allele for antibiotic resistance to their offspring.
53
Q

What is the issue with antibiotic resistance?

A

resistance is developing faster than new antibiotics

54
Q

How to prevent antibiotic resistance?

A
  • Practise good hygiene
  • Take antibiotics only when needed
  • Make sure to complete the full course of antibiotics.
55
Q

What are zoonotic diseases?

A

disease that can spread from non-human vertebrate animals to humans.

56
Q

What are spillover events?

A

when pathogens which are found in other animals cross to humans.

57
Q

How are the chances of spillover events increased?

A

Consumption of their meat
Poaching
Deforestation

58
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

may contain any of the following:
* Dead or inactivated pathogens.
* Attenuated (weakened) pathogen strains.
* A harmless version of a toxin.
* Isolated antigens from a pathogen.
* Genetically engineered antigens.
This stimulates the primary immune response to produce antibodies against the pathogen.
Memory cells, capable of recognising these antigens, are produced.

59
Q

What is the difference in immune response between the first and second vaccination?

A

second immune response is larger and stronger than first

60
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

when a significant number of people in the population have been vaccinated, giving protection to those that do not have immunity.

61
Q

What factors need to be considered when evaluating data related to the COVID-19 pandemic?

A
  • Data sources
  • Data types
  • Data collection
  • Data representation
  • Data limitation
62
Q

How are T helper cells activated?

A

when it binds to a complementary antigen

63
Q

What paths can a T-helper cell take after activation?

A
  • More helper T-cells are produced
  • Produces interleukins which activates the B-cells specific to the same antigen
  • Produces interleukins which activates killer T-cells specific to the same antigen

Biology topic 5 - Body systems (3 decks)

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