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BIOL 225 > Lesson 1: Basic Concepts and Mechanisms of Animal Form and Function > Flashcards

Lesson 1: Basic Concepts and Mechanisms of Animal Form and Function Flashcards

1
Q

At the coarsest level, how can we recognize an animal (4)?

A
  1. How they acquire and assimilate organic nutrients
  2. The presence of molecules and tissues that are exclusive to animals (ex: collagen)
  3. Their mode of sexual reproduction
  4. The presence of Hox genes that dictate their embryonic development
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2
Q

Plants are…

A

Multicellular photoautotrophs -> using energy from the sun, plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

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3
Q

Fungi are…

A

Heterotrophs (mostly multicellular)

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4
Q

Animals are…

A

Heterotrophic Multicellular
Eukaryotes

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5
Q

Heterotrophs …

A

Rely on their environment to acquire organic molecules.

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6
Q

How do fungi feed?

A

1.Secrete digestive enzyme directly into their environment

2.These digestive enzymes break down complex organic molecules into soluble products

3.The soluble products are small enough to be absorbed across the hyphal cells (through absorption)

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7
Q

How do animals feed?

A
  1. Animals ingest organic molecules
  2. Digestive enzymes produced within specialized cavities digest them down to bits small enough to be absorbed across epithelial cells.
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8
Q

What two innovations of the animal kingdom enable them to churn and push the food along?

A

Muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

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9
Q

What is the plant cell wall that reinforces the lipid bilayer made of?

A

Cellulose fibres (acts like steel beams)
+
Polysaccharides like pectin (acts like cement)

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10
Q

Animals have a cell wall ?

A

No

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11
Q

What is a protein innovation exclusive to the animal kingdom?

A

Collagen is a protein external to the cell membrane that provides structural support to animal cells (collagen is not found in plants and fungi).

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12
Q

Collagen is the foundation of what ?

A

Collagen is the foundation of bones upon which crystals of calcium and **phosphate **minerals are deposited.

Together, the collagen and minerals make up the skeleton that functions as a scaffold upon which other tissues can be draped

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13
Q

Collagen serves as what else (aside form bone foundation)?

A

Collagen is also the glue that binds muscle tissue to bone.

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14
Q

What allows animals to move about (hint : all three are exclusive innovations of the animal kingdom)

A

Collagen, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

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15
Q

How do animals reproduce?

A
  1. A haploid flagellated sperm joins with a haploid egg to form a diploid zygote.
  2. The diploid zygote undergoes a process called cleavage that leads to the blastula - a hollow multicellular sphere.
  3. Gastrulation follows when an infolding on the blastula –> gastrula
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16
Q

The archenteron is …

A

The embryonic gut of the gastrula

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17
Q

Outer covering of the gastrula:

A

Ectoderm

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18
Q

Inner covering of the gastrula:

A

Endoderm

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19
Q

Hox genes are:

A

The family of genes in control of gastrulation and organogenesis.

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20
Q

A single Hox gene set contains how many genes?

A

13

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21
Q

Invertebrates have how many copies of the hox gene set?

A

1
(Within the invertebrates, some phyla,
like the cnidarians, have only a few genes of the 13-gene set, while others like the annelids and arthropods have nearly the complete 13-gene set)

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22
Q

Vertebrates have how many copies of the hox gene set?

A

4

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23
Q

What did the ancestor of all organisms in the animal kingdom resemble 700 million years ago?

A

This ancestor probably resembled present day choanoflagellates.

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24
Q

What are choanoflagallates?

A

Choanoflagellates are members of the informal kingdom of protists.

They are heterotrophic single-celled organisms that live colonially.

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25
Q

What is the morphological evidence of a shared ancestry?

A

The morphological evidence of a shared ancestry comes from the striking ressemblance of choanoflagellates to the choanocyte cells that make up the body of sponges.

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26
Q

Earliest molecular and chemical evidence of animals?

A

1 billion years ago

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27
Q

Earliest macro fossil?

A

500 million years ago

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28
Q

First macro fossils?

A

These first fossils are of soft- bodies animals belonging to the Ediacaran biota (discovered in Australia)

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29
Q

The Ediacaran biota disappeared when?

A

At the start of the Cambrian period where animals with collagen, muscles, neurons and Hox genes first appeared.

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30
Q

Animals with collagen, muscles and neurons first appeared when?

A

Cambrian period

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31
Q

Most important moment in the history of the evolution of the animal kingdom?

A

Cambrian Explosion

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32
Q

Did randomness have a hand in determining the course of evolution of animals?

A

Yes

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33
Q

When did plants and animals emerge on terrestrial land?

A

During the Ordovician period of the Paleozoic era (after Cambrian explosion)

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34
Q

The rise of mammals and angiosperms was after what?

A

After the cretaceous mass extinction:

Earth’s atmosphere was covered in dust: dinosaurs went extinct: small nocturnal animals called mammals filled the vacuum that was left behind.

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35
Q

What dominated during the cenozoic era (after mesozoic - mass extinction)

A

Angiosperms dominated: Nutrient rich foods and seeds dominated the earth’s surface, shifting the cours of animal evolution in favour of mammals.

The success of mammals that followed is directly linked to the rise of angiosperms (provided them with an energy rich food source in perpetuity)

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36
Q

The phyla of the animal kingdom can be sorted based on 4 basic body plans, what are they ?

A
  1. Type of symmetry (radial, bilateral or no symmetry at all)
  2. Embryonic Tissue (Presence or Absence of)
  3. Body caviities (Coelomate, Pseudocolamates, Accoelomates)
  4. Type of embryonic development (Protostomes or Deuterostomes)
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37
Q

Porifera phylum (sea sponges):

A

-No symmetry

-Lack true tissue

-Lack hox genes (which explains their lack of meeting the basic form of animals –> Made up of haphazardly organized cells )

-Lack hox genes (explains their lack of meeting the basic form of animals)

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38
Q

What do Cnidarians (jellyfish) and Ctenophora (comb jellies) have in common?

A

They are radially symmetrical

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39
Q

Bilateral symmetry

A

The bulk of animals have bilateral symmetry

These animals can be cut along a single axis to produce mirror images

They have 6 sides:
A dorsal/ventral side
A left/right side
A posterior/anterior end

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40
Q

What does the anterior end of bilaterally symmetrical animals house?

A

Houses nervous tissue and sensory organs

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41
Q

The cell wall of plants offers:

A

Structural integrity to plant tissues

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42
Q

All animal phyla, with the exception of ____ have at least one copy of Hox Genes

A

Sponges

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43
Q

Cephalization

A

Clustering of neurons and sense organs

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44
Q

What is the difference between sessile radially symmetrical animals and bilateral animals?

A

Cephalization!

The clustering of sense neurons and sense organs, called cephalization was a major step forward for animals organisms in the animal kingdom because it enabled a very different kind of life that animals could pursue

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45
Q

All adult animal tissues originate from embryonic tissue developped by:

A

The gastrula

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46
Q

Outer layer of the gastrula:

A

Ectoderm

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47
Q

Inner layer of the gastrula

A

Endoderm

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48
Q

Diploblastic

A

Having only two germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm

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49
Q

Space between ectoderm and endoderm:

A

Mesoderm: Develops only for some animals

50
Q

During Embryonic Development, the ectoderm
gives rise to:

A

1.Nervous tissue

2.Sensory systems

3.Epidermis of the skin

51
Q

During embryonic development, the endoderm gives rise to:

A

Epithelial cells that line the digestive tract

Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas of the digestive system.

Lining for the respiratory, excretory and reproductive tracts and ducts

52
Q

During embryonic development, the mesoderm gives rise to

A

The dermis
The skeletal and muscular system, The circulatory and lymphatic systems and the excretory and reproductive systems

53
Q

Triploblastic animals have:

A

All three derm layers

54
Q

All bilateral animals are:

A

Tripoblastic

55
Q

Coelom

A

Larger animals all have a coelem

The coelem is a body cavity between the digestive tract (derived from endoderm) and outer body wall ( derived from ectoderm)

A coelem forms from tissues derived from the mesoderm (function depends on the animal)

The fluid from coelem cushions the suspended organs (helping prevent internal injury)

The cavity also enables the internal organs to grow and move independently of the outer body wall

56
Q

Coelomates:

A

Mesoderm lines the ectoderm and endoderm

57
Q

Pseudocoelomates:

A

Mesoderm only lines the ectoderm

58
Q

Accoelomates:

A

Animals that lack fluid-filled coeloms, are called acoelomates.

The cavity in such animals is filled with cells derived from the mesoderm.

When an acoelomate ingests food, its body shape gets distorted.

example: flatworms

59
Q

Benefits of a fluid filled cavity (coeloms)

A

1.Offers protection to organs from injury

  1. Organs move independently from the rest of the body (ex: eating food and beating heart does not distort body)
60
Q

Protostomes:

A
  1. Spiral cleavage

2.Blastopore becomes mouth

  1. Determinate cleavage
  2. Solid masses from mesoderm split and form the coelom
61
Q

Deuterostomes:

A
  1. Radial cleavage
  2. Blastopore becomes anus
  3. Indeterminate cleavage
  4. The mesoderm buds from the wall of the archenteron and its cavity becomes the coelom –>
62
Q

Indeterminate cleavage:

A

Each cell produced by early cleavage retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo

63
Q

Spiral cleavage:

A

Protostomes undergo spiral cleavage, where the plane of cell division is diagonal to the vertical axis of the animal.

64
Q

Radial cleavage:

A

Deuterostomes undergo radial cleavage, where the plane of cell division is parallel/ perpendicular to the vertical axis of the embryo.

65
Q

What animal phyla lacks a Hox gene set?

A

Sponges-phylumporifera

66
Q

Radially symmetrical animals:

A

Can be cut several ways to produce mirror images

They have no front or back, no left or right

These animals are often sessile, attached to some substrate or planktonic

67
Q

The bulk of the organisms in the animal kingdom have:

A

Bilateral symmetry

68
Q

Bilaterally symmetrical animals:

A

Can only be cut along a single axis to produce a mirror image

They have a dorsal and ventral side, a left and a right, an anterior and posterior end

69
Q

An example of a coelomate animal is:

A

worm in the annelids phylum

70
Q

What is an example of a pseudocoelomate (mesoderm covers only the ectoderm)?

A

Nematodes

71
Q

What is an example of an accoelomate animal?

A

Flatworms from the platyhelminth phylum.

72
Q

Simple squamous epithelial:

A

Paper thin epithelial cells (molecularly thin)

Very flat cells provide a moist thin surface for gas exchange

favours fast rates of diffusion along with the surface area

73
Q

What is drag?

A

A force that opposes the movement of objects going through a fluid

74
Q

Drag increases as a function of the

A

1.Cross-sectional area

2.Density of the fluid

3.Velocity of the moving object relative to the fluid (drag increases at the SQUARE of velocity)

  1. Drag coefficient
75
Q

What is the drag coefficient?

A

The drag coefficient is a constant and dimensionless number that is a function of the overall shape of the object.

76
Q

The amount of metabolites exchanged is a function of :

A

A cell’s surface area: there is more available surface to exchange from

77
Q

Why is bigger not better (in regards to metabolite exchange)?

A

As surface area (squared) increases, volume (cubed) increases much faster
–> with the larger cell volume comes the requirement for more metabolite exchange that simply cannot be met by the cells surface area

78
Q

What dictates how large a cell can get?

A

The surface area to volume ratio

79
Q

How did amoeba counter the cell surface area to volume ratio?

A

Highly infolded plasma membrane to increase the rate of exchange –> this would not be useful because animal cells are not in direct contact with the external environment

80
Q

How do animals exchange metabolites in sufficient quantities to service all cells (instead of having infolded cells like the amoeba)?

A

Multicellular animals have specialized organs with hyper exaggerated surfaces to absorb nutrients, exchange gases and eliminate wastes in sufficient quantities to service all cells

81
Q

What are the specialized organs in the mammalian body with exagerated exchange surface areas?

A

Gut, lungs, kidney

82
Q

What is drag?

A

A force that opposes the movement of objects going through a fluid

83
Q

Drag increases as a function of the

A

1.Cross-sectional area
2. Density of the fluid
3. Velocity of the moving object relative to the fluid (drag increases at the SQUARE of velocity)
4. Drag coefficient

84
Q

What is the drag coefficient?

A

The drag coefficient is a constant and dimensionless number that is a function of the overall shape of the object.

85
Q

The amount of metabolites exchanged is a function of:

A

A cell’s surface area: there is more available surface to exchange from

86
Q

Why is bigger not better ( in regards to metabolite exchange)?

A

As surface area (squared) increases, volume (cubed) increases much faster
–>
with the larger cell volume comes the requirement for more metabolite exchange that simply cannot be met by the cells surface area

87
Q

What dictates how large a cell can get?

A

The surface area to volume ratio

88
Q

How did amoeba counter the cell surface area to volume ratio?

A

Highly infolded plasma membrane to increase the rate of exchange –> this would not be useful because animal cells are not in direct contact with the external environment

89
Q

How do animals exchange metabolites in sufficient quantities to service all cells (instead of having infolded cells like the amoeba)?

A

Multicellular animals have specialized organs with hyper exaggerated surfaces to absorb nutrients, exchange gases and eliminate wastes in sufficient quantities to service all cells

90
Q

What are the specialized organs in the mammalian body with exaggerated exchange surface areas?

A
  1. Gut for obtaining nutrients
  2. Lungs for gas exchange
  3. Kidneys for waste removal
91
Q

Exaggerated surface area: Digestive system:

A

Nutrients are digested and absorbed across a rippled surface with finger-like projections called villi that serve to increase the rate of absorption of nutrients

92
Q

Exaggerated surface area: Lungs

A

The sponge-like architecture of the alveoli in the lungs serves as an exchange surface for CO2 and O2.

93
Q

Exaggerated surface area: Kidneys

A

The nephron—the functional unit of the kidney—resembles a long, convoluted noodle

that receives wastes from a ball-shaped cluster of blood vessels. With roughly 1.2

million nephrons per kidney, and each one associated with its own bundle of blood

vessels, we have a formidable surface area for the rapid removal of wastes.

94
Q

What are the four types of tissue in the animal kingdom?

A
  1. Epithelial tissue (5)
  2. Connective tissue
  3. Muscle tissue
  4. Nervous tissue
95
Q

What are the five types of epithelial tissue?

A
  1. simple squamous
  2. cuboidal
  3. columnar
  4. stratified squamous
  5. pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells
96
Q

Simple Columnar Epithelial:

A

The function of these cells is to produce enzymes to digest nutrients

Lines the small intestine

synthesize many kinds of enzymes: requires large endoplasmic reticulum + a large cell size to accomodate the prominent endomembrane

97
Q

Simple squamous epithelial

A

Paper thin epithelial cells (molecularly thin)

Very flat - provides moist surface for exchange

favours fast rates of diffusion along with the surface area

98
Q

Stratified Squamous Epithelial:

A

Lining of the oral cavity is made of stratified squamous epithelial: as food wears away cells from the apical surface ,they are replaced by the continuous addition of new cells from the basal surface

stratified = layers

abrasiveness problem

99
Q

What are the 6 major types of connective tissue in vertebrates?

A
  1. Loose connective tissue
  2. Fibrous connective tissue
  3. Bone
  4. Adipose Tissue
  5. Blood
  6. Cartilage
100
Q

(1) Loose connective Tissue:

A

The function of the dermis (loose connective tissue) is to support the overlying epithelial tissues, physcial defense, immune defense

Within this tissue, we can find fat cells, cells of the immune system, fibroblast cells, elastic fibres, reticular fibres

Highly vascularized

101
Q

What are connective tissues?

A

Connective tissue contains sparsely packed cells and fibres that are scattered throughout an extracellular matrix

The matrix can be liquid, jelly-like or solid

Connective tissues function in physical protection, immune protection, movement, support, storage , transport

101
Q

Fibroblast Cells:

A

Produce collagen fibres

102
Q

Elastic Fibres:

A

Give the dermis elasticity

103
Q

Reticular Fibres:

A

Anchor the tissue in place

104
Q

Fibrous (or dense) connective tissue:

A

Fibrous (or dense) connective tissue is mainly composed of collagen, which serves to:

  1. Anchor skeletal muscles in the form of tendons
  2. Connect bones at joints in the form of ligaments
105
Q

Tendons:

A

Anchor skeletal muscles –> fibrous/dense connective tissue

106
Q

Ligaments:

A

Connect bones at joints –> fibrous/ dense connective tissue

107
Q

Adipose Tissue (Type of Connective Tissue):

A

Beneath the dermis is a sheet of adipose tissue

This fat is made up mostly of adipocytes (function to store fat), but cells of the immune system may also reside in the extracellular matrix

Highly vascularized

108
Q

Blood (Connective Tissue) :

A

Blood, contained with blood vessels is a type of connective tissue carrying red blood cells, white blood cells, nutrients and wastes in a liquid matrix to support the functionning of all body cells

109
Q

Bone (Connective Tissue):

A

In bones, osteoblast cells produce collagen fibres which are hardened by calcium, phosphorous and magnesium

Highly Vascularized

110
Q

Cartilage (Connective Tissue)

A

Collagen-rich tissue produced by chondrocyte cells embedded in a rubbery matrix

Cartilage functions to cushion the space in between the vertebrae and other bones

Gives nose and ears their characteristic flexibility

AVASCULAR - no blood vessels

111
Q

What is composed of chondrocytes?

A

The cartilage is composed of chondrocytes

112
Q

Osteoblasts:

A
113
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue (muscle tissue is a type of connective tissue)?

A
  1. Skeletal muscle
  2. Smooth muscle
  3. Cardiac muscle
114
Q
A
114
Q

Skeletal Muscle:

A

-Long, Threadlike, Multinucleated

-Responsible for voluntary movement

115
Q

Smooth Muscle:

A

short, tapered ends, single nucleus

responsible for involuntary body activiteis (ex; peristalsis, contractions for blood flow, emptying the bladder)

116
Q

Cardiac muscle:

A

short, branched, cells have a single nucleus

responsible for contractions of the heart

117
Q

What are the two types of cells of the nervous tissue (nervous tissue = connective tissue)?

A
  1. Neurons
  2. Glia cells
118
Q

Nervous tissue (type of connective tissue) functions in:

A

Receiving, processing, and the transmission of information

119
Q

A pseudocoelom is derived from:

A

both mesoderm and endoderm

120
Q

A Coelom is derived from:

A

only the mesoderm

BIOL 225 (3 decks)

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