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psychology 2 > lesson 1 > Flashcards

lesson 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What does empirical scientific research mean

A
  • grounded in objective, tangible evidence
  • can be observed time and time again
  • regardless of who is observing
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2
Q

deductive reasoning

A

results are predicted based on a general premise

  • all living things require energy to survive -> ducks are living things -> ducks need energy to survive
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3
Q

inductive reasoning

A

conclusion are drawn from observations
- fruits growing on trees -> we assume all fruits grow on trees

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4
Q

process of scientific research

A
  • scientists form ideas through deductive reasoning
  • hypotheses are tested through empirical observations and scientists form conclusions through inductive reasoning
  • conclusions lead to new theories and hypotheses
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5
Q

theory

A

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

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6
Q

hypothesis

A

tentative and testable statement / prediction about the relationship between two or more variables

  • predicts how the world will behave if theory is correct
  • usually if-then statement
  • can be falsifiable
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7
Q

clinical or case studies

A
  • focus on one individual
  • studied individual is typically in an extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them from the general public
  • allow a lot of insight into the case
  • difficult to generalize the results to a larger population
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8
Q

observation

A
  • observation of behaviour in its natural setting
  • naturalistic behaviour is generally hidden under scrutiny or observation
    -> problem of reactivity
  • to study the most accurate and genuine behaviour
  • any feeling of performance or anxiety of the individual is eliminated
  • observer bias : when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations
    -> need to establish clear criteria to observe
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9
Q

surveys

A
  • paper-and-pencil
  • electronically
  • verbally
  • used to gather a large amount of data from a sample from a larger population
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10
Q

archival research

A

uses past records and data sets to answer various research questions

or to search for patterns of relationships

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11
Q

longitudinal and cross-sectional research

A
  • cross-sectional: compares multiple segments of a population at a single time (eg different age groups)
  • longitudinal: studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time
  • always expect some individuals to drop out -> initial recruitment of a lot of participants
    -> attrition= reduction in nr of research participants as some drop out of the study over time
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12
Q

attrition

A

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

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13
Q

correlational research

A
  • correlation= relationship between two or more variables -> one variable changes as the other does
  • correlation coefficient= number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, usually represented by r
  • positive correlation: two variables change in the same direction
  • negative correlation: two variables change in different directions
  • correlation does not imply causation but aid in prediction
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14
Q

cause and effect relationship

A

changes in one variable cause the change in the other variable, can be determined only through experimental research design

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15
Q

confounding variable

A

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other

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16
Q

illusory correlations

A

seeing relationships between two things when in reality there is none

-> confirmation bias: tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs
- can be involved in the formation of prejudicial attitudes that lead to discriminatory behaviour

17
Q

experimental group

A

participants that experience the manipulated variable

18
Q

control group

A

participants do not experience the manipulated variable
- serve as basis for comparison and controls the chance for factors that might influence the results of the study

19
Q

experimenter and participant bias

A
  • experimenter bias= researcher expectations skew the results of the study
  • participant bias = participant expectations skew the results
20
Q

single-blind and double-blind study

A
  • single-blind: participants dont know if they are in the experimental or control group (controls participant bias)
  • double-blind: researcher and participant both dont know
21
Q

placebo effect

A

people’s expectation or belief influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

-> control group will receive a sugar pill
-> differences between the groups will be due to the medication and not placebo effect

22
Q

independent and dependent variable

A
  • independent: variable that is influenced/controlled by the experimenter -> should be the only difference between the two groups
  • dependent: variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable has
23
Q

definitions of sample, population and random sample

A
  • sample: subset of individuals selected from the larger population
  • population: overall group of individuals that the researcher is interested in
  • random sample: subset of larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
    -> more likely that the selected participants will be representative of the larger population
24
Q

random assignment

A

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have equal chance of being assigned to either group

  • using statistical software or by flipping a coin
  • to find a true cause-and-effect relationship (if not random, any relationship could be due to preexisting differences between the groups)
  • to avoid preexisting systematic differences so that any significant differences between the groups can be said to be the result of the manipulation
25
Q

issues to consider

A
  • manipulating variables:
    eg the effect of gender on spatial memory -> gender (independent variable) can not be manipulated, males and females cannot be randomly assigned -> experiment is quasi-experimental (cause-and-effect relationship cannot be determined)
  • ethics: some questions cannot be answered because the experimental design would be unethical
    eg effect of abuse on self-esteem
26
Q

interpreting experimental findings

A
  • statistical analysis= determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance
  • statistically significant or non-significant
27
Q

reporting findings

A
  • scientific journals
    -> aimed at professionals/scholars
  • peer-reviewed journal article : article read by other scientists with expertise in subject matter, provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before being accepted for publication
    -> helps to weed out poorly executed studies
    -> improves articles with suggested revisions
    -> determines wheter the research is clear enough to be replicated by others
28
Q

replication

A
  • determines reliability of original research design
  • can include additional measures that expand on the original findings
  • provide more evidence to support the original findings, or to cast doubt on those findings
29
Q

reliability

A

consistency and reproducibility of a given result
- important to record the same way and to observe the same way

inter-rater reliability: measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

30
Q

validity

A

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure
(does the test measure what it is supposed to?)
- valid measure is always reliable, but a reliable measure is not always valid

31
Q

Institutional review board (IRB)

A

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

  • exist at any research institution that receives federal support for research with human participants
  • irb must approve a research proposal before it can proceed
32
Q

informed consent

A

process of informing the participant about what to expect during an experiment and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

  • potential risks
  • implications of the research
  • notification that it is voluntary
  • notification that any data collected will be kept confidential
33
Q

Deception and debriefing

A

deception is sometimes necessary to prevent the participant’s knowledge of the research question affecting the results as long as it is not harmful

  • deception= purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment
  • debriefing= participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

psychology 2 (5 decks)

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