Lectures 1 Flashcards
Processive stressor
Stressor that requires mental processing
Systemic stressor
Stressor from inside the body
What does inflammation signal?
That an immune response has been activated
Where do you get a pathology when stressed?
Where you are vulnerable, at your weak link
Why is proper diagnosis so important?
The same disease may have many different symptoms so a proper diagnosis can be paramount for proper treatment
What makes a valid animal model (3)
- The symptoms that are present in humans are also present in the animal
- Similar physiology
- Similar response to treatment
2-Hit Hypothesis
A first hit of a stressor might not cause the illness, the second hit makes it more likely until eventually something pushes you over the edge
“The straw that broke the camel’s back” is similar to what hypothesis?
2 Hit Hypothesis
Low control is:
more stressful
What is the result of ambiguity/uncertainty?
Some people can handle this, but others cannot and it causes more stress (anxiety)
Why do cellphones make us more stressed?
Because when it goes off we have to look at it or else it makes us go more crazy
What gauges the severity of a stressor (3)
Predictability
Frequency
Duration
Traits vs States
Traits = Fixed and permanent
States = Situation dependent
(But are influenced by traits)
What does it mean when a disease is poly-genetic
It means that it is caused by more than one gene
Epistatic Interaction
A gene may be there but it will not express itself unless another gene is present
Epistasis
When there is an interaction between two genes that results in a pathology
Pleiotropy
When one gene can have more than one phenotype
Comorbidity
When more than one illness occurs together (one does not necessarily cause the other)
Biomarker
When there is a phenotype linked to an illness
–> Can predict the likelihood of illness based on presence of biomarker
What type of research design is used to determine how much of a trait or illness is genetic or environment?
Use twin studies
What is the ratio of depression in women as compared to men?
2:1
Who is more responsive to stressors?
women
Which type of stressors are men more responsive to?
Competitive stressors
What are the 2 systems for decision making>
- Fast system - quick, heuristics, based on prior experience
- Slow System - more critical and deeper thinking
Does priming work?
Yes but the priming stimulus has to be obvious, it does not work if it is subtle
What is an anchor in decision making?
Where the “bar” is set
It keeps you in place and gives you direction
Coping style
How you cope most of the time
Coping Strategy
How you plan to cope with a specific stressor
Which coping strategy is best most of the time?
Problem focused coping
Which coping strategy is typically the worst?
Rumination
What is the ultimate way to cope?
Use a combination of coping strategies and be flexible
Forgiveness vs Forbearance
Forgiveness = I have let this go Forbearance = I will give you another chance but you better not do it again
What are 2 important characteristics of social support?
- Informative - provide information
2. Tangible - be physically present (shoulder to cry on)
What is it important that you have with a person for the most effective social support?
A personal connection / something in common
What are unsupportive interactions
When you expect to get support and you are let down.
What is one of the strongest social stressors?
Social rejection
Adaptation in predictable stressors
You can adapt and you are better able to deal with the stressor
Adaptation in unpredictable stressors
You cannot adapt and it becomes harder to cope
What is sensitization?
When you encounter a stressor, neurochemical changes take place to help you deal with it
If you cope with something instantly, it is a stressor?
No
Homeostasis is like what stress process
Allostasis
Allostatic Overload
The wear and tear on the body and brain as a result of chronic stressors
2 ways allostatic overload affects stress response
- Too much cortisol kills hippocampal cells so they cannot turn off HPA axis
- The NT are used up and cells are depleted
Which age is more sensitive to chronic stressors and why?
Children because they do not understand what is happening so they cannot use cognitive re-construal to cope
What personality characteristics affect coping
Locus of control
Self esteem
Self efficacy
How can the way we form memories help us cope?
We tend to remember ourselves in a positive light
Regulatory genes
Genes that dictate how and when other genes will be expressed
Polymorphism
Any mutation that affects more than 1% of the population
What does SNP stand for?
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
Why is it hard to link SNPs to pathology?
Because there are so many SNPs on a single gene
Endophenotype treatments
Tying a phenotype to a specific gene
> If we can figure out what symptoms are related to what gene we will be better able to use targeted treatments.
What things on genes would allow treatments to be tailored to specific people?
Biomarkers
What is the RDOC
It is a substitution for the DSM
Methylation vs acetylation
Methylation = silence Acetylation = amplified
What shortens with each cell replication that makes mutations more likely?
Telomeres
What is programmed cell death called
Apoptosis
If apoptosis does not occur, what is the result?
The cell can become cancerous
Advantagous mutations are passed on through the generations, what is this called
Natural selection
What is an example of a disease that can have selective advantages?
Sickle cell anemia
Why are stress responses so large
Because when you are in danger we need a large burst of energy to deal with the threat
What hormone is needed to initiate an immune response?
Norepinephrine
What percent of epigenetic changes are said to be permanent?
5%
When do most epigenetic changes occur?
During development
Can epigenetic changes be passed onto children?
Not often but some can
> More from mothers but it an be passed on from fathers
Synergism
When drugs have multiplicative effects when they interact with one another
(more than just adding the effects of the parts)
What is the primary stress system?
Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis
What is the mechanism of the HPA axis/
- PFC stops exerting control over amygdala
- Amygdala stimulates hypothalamus to release CRH
- CRH stimulates pituitary and releases ACTH
- ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in the stress response?
PFC is involved in appraisals. When it processes situations as non-threatening it exerts inhibitory control over the amygdala which prevents the HPA axis from being triggered.
If the PFC processes stimulus as a threat, it releases control over amygdala and the HPA axis is activated
Cortisol along with what other hormone give you more energy. How do you get more energy?
Norepinephrine
They cause free fatty acids to be released which gives you an added energy source
What kinds of foods will you choose to eat when cortisol is released
High calorie foods
Why is white fat bad for you and where do we typically carry white fat?
it is bad for you because it contains cytokines (inflammatory factors) that can be released into the blood and damage the heart
Typically carried in the gut
How does the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis harm the hippocampus
It works like the HPA axis where the hippocampus is the switch for the negative feedback loop. Additionally, too much will kill the hippocampal cells
> Why steroids are dangerous
Sensitization stress response to every day stressors vs salient stressors
Everyday stressors = the body down regulates the stress response
Salient stressor = the stress response will become hyper reactive
We forget fear and pain but we do not forget ____
shame/humiliation
Which 2 emotions causes the biggest cortisol response?
Shame and anger
Does anxiety have a large effect on cortisol?
No, it only rises it ~40%
Anxiety disorders seen in adults may have developed when?
In childhood or even prenatally
The brain is only __% at birth compared to adulthood, so that suggests what?
60%
It is very sensitive and things can come along and disturb its growth
Teratogen
Anything that can cause a disturbance or malformation of the brain, organs, or limbs
The earlier the disruption occurs the ______
larger the effect will be
What two main hormones can affect the developing brain?
CHR and cortisol
What are the 3 main sex hormones?
Estrogen
Progesterone
Testosterone
Which hormone is involved in salt production?
Aldosterone
What happens is there is not enough aldosterone?
There will be a salt deficiency and as a result no other processes will be possible (like reproduction)
Does women’s higher stress reactivity mean they are more emotionally reactive/
not necessarily
What does it mean to say that estrogen is neuro-protective?
There is less of a stress response with high levels of estrogen and it has powerful effects on the immune system
Women are most likely to develop what pathologies?
Depression, anxiety, autoimmune disorders (except type 1 diabetes)
Alricial vs Precocial
Altricial = when born young are still dependent on mothers Precocial = when born young are relatively mature
Oxytocin is known as:
the bonding hormone
What two hormones are needed for animal imprinting?
Oxytocin and prolactin
Animals who have pair bonded have higher levels of what hormone?
Oxytocin
Oxytocin causes tend and ____ in females
tend and ____ in males
Befriend (females)
Defend (males)
With the presence of oxytocin, events are processed as more________
Salient/meaningful
How is oxytocin affected if abused in childhood
There will be a decrease in oxytocin levels as a protective mechanism
How does the negative feedback loop on presynaptic cells work?
Autoreceptors regulate the release of NT
- If low, make more
- If high, stop producing
How does reuptake affect signal duration
It determines how long the NT are in the synapse and as a result determines how long the NT are having an effect
Are the elements that cause a disease always what keeps it going?
No, one thing could start a disease and another thing could prolong it
If a drug works to modify a system and that relieves a symptom, was that system the cause of the disease?
Usually not
Ex. SSRIs and depression
What can be a bad thing about treating a symptom?
Because it can make it seem like it is cured
Main excitatory NT
Glutamate
Main inhibitory NT
GABA
Why is inhibition important for attention?
It allows us to selectively attend to the important information and not get lost in the noise
GABA receptors are made up of how many sub units
5
What is the relationship between GABA receptor subunits and drugs?
The composition of the receptor (subunits) determines what drug is able to act on it
Glutamate Storm
When there is an excess of glutamate and it causes cells to die
At rest what is the state of the GABA receptors?
The subunits are in harmony
What happens to the state of the GABA receptors when under stress?
The subunits become asynchronous
GABA concentrations under mild stress
More GABA
|»_space; results in more inhibition and more ability to concentrate
GABA and Glutamate concentrations under chronic stress
Less GABA
> less inhibition = more randomness
More Glutamate
> can be toxic
Does each NT have only one effect?
No, it has different effects depending on what region the hormone is in
If you take a drug to act on a NT, does it only affect a targeted region?
No, it will affect all of that hormone all over the brain
> Could produce undesired affects
When under a chronic stressor, how do the neurons keep up with the demands?
More NT are released, so more NT are synthesized
» But eventually the body will run out
–> Allostatic overload
3 consequences of allostatic overload
- Cell death
- Cells can no longer operate because there are no more resources
- Social Overload
What is social overload?
When the stressor comes from a broken society but the problem is so great that an individual has no control and cannot do anything about the situation
