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Pharmacology/Ototoxicity > Lectures 1 & 2: Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology > Flashcards

Lectures 1 & 2: Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Biochemistry

A

study of molecular basis of life

“study of chemical substances and processes of living matter”

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2
Q

biochemistry can explain processes within other life science disciplines such as:

A
  • biotechnology and bioinformatics
  • cell biology and signaling
  • development and disease
  • energy and metabolism
  • genetics
  • molecular biology
  • plant biology
    pharmacology and ototoxicity
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3
Q

What is an ion?

A

electrically charged atom or molecule formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons

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4
Q

The first inner ring can only hold

A

two electrons

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5
Q

the second ring can only hold

A

eight electrons

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6
Q

the third ring can only hold

A

18 electrons

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7
Q

the fourth rings holds

A

32 electrons

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8
Q

if atomic shell has lost electrons

gives what charge?

A

there is more protons than electrons

ion has positive charge (one for each unbalanced proton)

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9
Q

cation =

A

positive charged ion

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10
Q

if atomic shell has added electron

A

there will be more electrons than protons

ion will have negative charge (one for each extra electron)

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11
Q

anion =

A

negative charged ion

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12
Q

why are substances also called electrolytes?

A

facilitate conductance of electrical current

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13
Q

the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions brings the particles together and creates an

A

ionic compound (such as sodium NACL)

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14
Q

Molecule

made up of:

A

smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance

two or more atoms linked by chemical bonds

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15
Q

the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to

A

the atomic number

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16
Q

radicals (uncharged atom)

A

least reactive when outermost electron shell is full

-uncharged atom (equal number of electrons and protons) may have balanced charges

if outer shell is not full = chemically unstable

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17
Q

to many free radicals damage other molecules over time producing among other things

A

some aging effects and probably some cancers

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18
Q

Compound

A

combination of <_ 2 elements with a chemical union

combine in reproducible way

ex: H20

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19
Q

mixture

A

two or more different elements/compounds physically intermingled

can be separated into its components by physical means

ex: salt and water

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20
Q

non uniform mixture

A

consists of two or more substances without fixed proportions and without chemical bonding

each substance keeps its original properties

EX: water and oil

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21
Q

in biology structures exist at all levels or organization ranging from hierachy of

A

atomic
molecular
cellular
tissue
organ
organism
population
ecosystem

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22
Q

higher level structure is composed of multiple copies of a

A

lower level structure
- organism consist of: atoms/molecules/cells/ and tissues

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23
Q

chemistry is the branch of science that deals with

A

1) identification of substances of which matter is composed

2) investigation of properties of substances

3) ways in which substances interact, combine, and change

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24
Q

structural formula of a chemical compound is

A

graphical representation of molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged

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25
Q

protein structure is the

A

biomolecular structure of a protein molecule

proteins are polypeptides sequences formed from the building blocks of many amino acids

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26
Q

chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows

A

the formation of chemical substances containing two or more atoms

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27
Q

different types of bonds

A

covalent
non covalent
- electrostatic bond (Ionic)
hydrogen
hydrophobic
van der waals

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28
Q

Covalent bonds (bonding between NON METALS) results from

A

sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules

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29
Q

covalent bonds molecules are held together by

A

mutual affinity for their shared electron
ex: Carbon and Oxygen = covalent

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30
Q

covalent bonds are the force that hold together

A

proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids

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31
Q

what is the most strongest and stable bond?

A

covalent because energy required to break bonds is great so makes bonds irreversible

NOT involved in drug receptor interactions

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32
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

force between a positive hydrogen atom and electronegative atom (Oxygen/nitrogen/sulfur)

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33
Q

a hydrogen bond alone is weaker than

A

covalent and ionic bonds

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34
Q

any molecule which has hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen or a nitrogen is capable of

A

hydrogen bonding

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35
Q

molecules with hydrogen atom will always have

A

higher boiling points (-O-H/ -N-H)

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36
Q

hydrogen bonding makes molecules

A

stickier and more heat is required to seperate them

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37
Q

Hydrogen bonds critical functions

A
  • holding two strands of DNA double helix together
  • help enzymes bind to their substrate
  • help antibodies bind to antigen
  • help transcription factors bind to eachother
  • help transcription factors bind to DNA
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38
Q

Ionic bonds = Bonding between METAL and NONMETALS, electrostatic bonds between two ions of

A

opposite charges

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39
Q

ionic bond is transfer of

A

_> one electrons from a metal to non metal

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40
Q

ionic bonds
- atoms with excessive electrons (- charged atom) are attracted to

A

atoms of deficiency of electrons (+ charged atom)

ex: sodium (Na alkaline metal and Chlorine (CI) = ionic bond

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41
Q

ionic bonds are stronger than

A

hydrogen but weaker than covalent

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42
Q

what is the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to receptor sites

A

ionic bonds

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43
Q

Van der Waals bonds

A

molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range

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44
Q

Van der Waals bonds are residual attractive/repulsive forces between

A

molecules or atomic groups that do NOT arise from covalent bond or electrostatic interaction of ions or ionic groups with one another or with neutral molecules

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45
Q

Van der Waals bonds areas interact with transient areas of

A

opposite charges on another molecule

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46
Q

bigger the atom or molecule the

A

bigger the Van der Waals force

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47
Q

attractice forces called van der waals forces are

A

most common bond between atoms
weaker than covalent, ionic, or hydrogen
- forces operate only when molecules pass very closely to each other
- provide weak force for some drugs and their receptors

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48
Q

oxidation and reduction (redox) are a family of reactions

A

concerned with transfer of electrons

49
Q

redox reactions are a matched set meaning

A

there is no oxidation reaction without reduction reaction happening at the same time

50
Q

oxidation refers to the ____

while reduction refers to ____

A

loss of electrons

gain of electrons

each reaction by itself is called hald reaction bc need to be two half reactions for a whole reaction

51
Q

what are all metal atoms characterized by ?

A

tendency to be oxidized
losing one or more electrons
forming a postively charged ion (cation)

52
Q

electrons lost by the metal are not destroyed but

A

gained by the non metal which is said to be reduced

53
Q

as the non metal gains the electrons lost by the metal it forms

A

a negatively charged ion (anion)

54
Q

what is oxidative stress?

A

disturbance (imbalance) between production of reactive oxygen species - ROS (includes free radicals and peroxides) produced by most body reactions and a biologic systems antioxidant defenses which would allow it to easily repair the resulting damage

55
Q

disturbance in redox environment results in excess ROS that can

A

damage components of cells, including proteins lipids and DNA

56
Q

oxidative stress and inflammation are two processes that go hand in hand resulting in

A

aging process
neurodegeneration
disease
- diabetes
- cancers
- atherosclerosis
- parkisons
- alzheimers

57
Q

severe oxidative stress may cause cell death by

A

necrosis

58
Q

necrosis

A

passive, accidental cell death with subsequent inflammation

no damage to surrounding cells

59
Q

moderate oxidation can trigger

A

apoptosis

60
Q

apoptosis

A

active, programmed cell death that avoids elicitng information

61
Q

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)

A

used by immune system to attack and kill pathogen

cell signaling

62
Q

Why must overproduction of ROS be avoided

A

to prevent cell damage

63
Q

glutathione is

A

naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins like free radicals

64
Q

1) reduced glutathione has a strong

2) as electrons are lost

3) all cells in body are capable of producing glutathione but

4) glutathione is important factor in

5) new otoprotective drug therapies are designed

A

1) electron donating character

2) molecules become oxidized

3) synthesis in liver is essential

4) protector within auditory vestibualr system
5) designed to promote actions of glutathione

65
Q

inflammation is part of biological immune response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as

A

pathogens
physical trauma
chemical trauma

66
Q

inflammation is necessary response that allows body

A

to destroy invading organisms and repair itself

67
Q

inflammatory process (self limiting) can become continuous and

A

chronic inflammatory diseases might develop

68
Q

chronic inflammation characterized by

A

continued active inflammation response and tissue destruction

69
Q

what does chronic inflammatory process induce

A

oxidative stress and reduces cellular antioxidant capacity

70
Q

overproduced free radicals react with

and can lead to

A

cell membrane fatty acids and proteins imparing their function permanently

lead to mutation and DNA damage

71
Q

Risk factors of chronic inflammation are

A

Hypoxia (COPD)
obesity
hyperglycemia
smoking

72
Q

chronic inflammation can be predisposing factor for some

A

cancers and accelerated aging and wide variety of age related diseases such as

diabetes
hypertension
cardiovascular
autoimmune diseases

73
Q

cardinal signs of inflammation

A

redness
swelling
heat
pain
loss of function

74
Q

vasodilation
increased blood flow

A

redness

75
Q

edema caused by accumulation of fluid outside blood vessels

A

sweling

76
Q

increased blood flow to area
fever is brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation and contributes to the rise in temperature at the injury site

A

heat

77
Q

distortion of tissues caused by edema
chemical mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins

A

pain

78
Q

because of pain or severe swelling that prevents movement

A

loss of function

79
Q

what are enzymes

A

catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells
(proteins)

80
Q

molecules at the beginning of the process called

A

substrates

81
Q

enzymes converts substrate into different molecules and these are called

A

products

82
Q

an enzyme must briefly untie with

A

at least one of the reactants

83
Q

set of enzymes made in a cell determines

A

which metabolic pathways occur in that cell

84
Q

enzymes end in ase of the name of compounds they act on

A

collagenase
lactase

85
Q

enzyme and substrate can have specific shapes such that an enzyme may be specific for a specific substrate, if enzyme and substrate dont match

A

NO reaction will occur

enzyme can slightly modify its shape to accomodate several substrates

86
Q

enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules

inhibitors
activators

A

inhibitors = molecules decrease enzyme activity

activators= molecules that increase enzyme activity

87
Q

enzyme activity also affected by

A

temperture
chemical environement
and concentration of substrate

88
Q

receptors are ?

many receptors span the cell membrane

A

protein molecule embedded in the cell surface or cytoplasm and allows for communciation between the cell and the world outside cell

89
Q

receptor allows extra cellular molecules such as

A

hormones, neurotransmitters, toxins, or drugs to attach to it resulting in a change in cell fucntion

90
Q

extracellular molecules also called

A

ligands

91
Q

receptor ligand binding occurs by

A

ionic bonds/hydrogen
and van der waals forces

92
Q

what is a hormone?

A

chemical substance usually a peptide or steroid produced/released by one set of cells and conveyed by the blood stream to another to effect physiological activty such as growth or metabolism

93
Q

horomones are powerful and only a small amount of hormone is required to

A

alter cell metabolism

94
Q

hormones are chemical messengers that transports

A

a signal from one cell to another

95
Q

what produces hormones ?

A

all multicellular organisms

96
Q

hormones cause reactions that are slower than those associated with

A

neurotransmitters

97
Q

hormone examples

A

throid
cortisol
estrogen
testosterone

98
Q

a neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries boosts modulates signals between

A

neurons and other cells in the body

99
Q

process known as reuptake

A

neurotransmitter attaches to receptor site and is reabsorbed by neuron

100
Q

neurotransmitters are affected by disease and drugs

diseases like Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s

A

dopamine deficiency in parkinsons

acetylcholine deficiency in Alzheimer’s

101
Q

epinephrine and norepinephrine

excitatory effects on the neuron

increase likelihood neurons will fire an action potential

A

excitatory neurotransmitters

102
Q

serotonin and Gaba
inhibitory effect

decrease likelihood of action potential

A

inhibitory neurotransmitters

103
Q

voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles

A

acetylcholine

104
Q

wakefulness or arousal

A

norepinepherine

105
Q

voluntary movement and motivation wanting pleasure associated with addiction and love

A

dopamine

106
Q

memory emotion wakefulness, sleep temperature regulation (associated with depression

A

serotonin

107
Q

inhibition of motor neurons major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

A

GABA
gamma aminobutyric acid

108
Q

spinal reflexes and motor behavior

A

glycine

109
Q

excitatory stimulation

A

glutamate

110
Q

neuromodulator is

A

substance released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons altering their activities

111
Q

neuromodulator produce a more diffuse response and are released through

A

central nervous system

112
Q

neuromodulator plays role in sensory transmission (pain)

A

substance P modulates pain
dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction

113
Q

local chemicals

A

work locally and are not released into systemic circualtion

114
Q

local chemicals include

A

histamine
prostaglandins

115
Q

histamine

A

organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses (allergies)

116
Q

prostaglandins

A

hormone like lipid compound made at site of tissue damage or infection

deal with injury
- inflammation
- blood flow
- formation of blood clots
- induction of labor

117
Q

AUD ~2000 drugs and 400 side effects impact audiologic and vestibular system

A

hearing loss
tinnitus
vestivualr dysfucntion
cogntive issues
combination

118
Q

case history questions

A

what medication are you currenly taking (dose and frequency)

what condition is medication for

how long have you been taking these medications

Pharmacology/Ototoxicity (3 decks)

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