Lecture Notes Flashcards
when we think about the “why”, the adaptive significance we are taking this approach to science (physiology)
Teleological Approach (function)
in complex systems properties exist that cannot be predicted by knowledge of the systems individual parts
Emergent properties
in contrast to teleological this approach answers the “how” questions
Mechanistic Approach
Mass Balance = ?
existing body load + (intake or production) – (excretion or metabolic removal)
How much of a substance in the body
Load
Taking things into the body (usually through digestive system)
Intake
Our bodies way of making things
Metabolic production
diseases may be caused internally or externally
Pathophysiology
Balancing intake and output. Amount of substance in body has to be constant, maintaining a level of balance.
Law of mass balance
Eliminating things
Excretion
Anything that’s a foreign substance in the body
xenobiotics
Converting into something else
Metabolic removal
Tracking the flow of a substance throughout the body from intake to output
Mass flow
Rate at which something disappears from the body
Clearance
New drug to determine concentration, effects, etc.
pharmokinetics
Main clearance
kidneys, liver
Represents the fluctuations above and below a set point (set point being the steady state trying to establish). Steady state does not equal equilibrium.
Dynamic constancy
Implies that the composition/concentration of compartments are identical
Equilibrium
Optimum value trying to maintain, average number body attempting to establish homeostasis around
Setpoint
The two basic patterns are
local control and long distance reflex control
Control System of setpoint: 3 component parts
- Input signal
- Integrating center
- Output signal»_space; response
occurs in a small area of the body, restricted to a tissue or cell so that changes occur in the immediate vicinity (ex. release of vasodilating chemicals)
Local control
long distance pathways using the
nervous system, endocrine system or both
Reflex control
Response Loop
- stimulus
- sensor
- input signal
- integrating center
- output signal
- target
- response
evaluate the example of the aquarium water temperature used in the book; also examine antagonistic control like that of a heater and air conditioner (explore ANS and endocrine hormones)
Stimulus (Response Loop)
feedback loops influence the response loop by
influencing the input portion of the response loop
pathway
? are the simplest types of matter and consist of ?
Elements, atoms
The nucleus of an atom contains subatomic particles:
Protons (+ charge).
Neutrons (no charge).
Electrons (- charge).
Sum of the protons and neutrons. (the mass of a proton is equal to that of a neutron)
Atomic mass
Number of protons in an atom. (this indirectly tells us the number of electrons)
Atomic number
energy levels where electrons usually don’t pass. instead they occupy
space called orbitals within the energy level
Electron shells
First electron shell can contain
only 2 electrons. (1s orbital)
Second electron shell can contain
8 electrons. (2s and 2p orbitals)
Electrons in the outer most orbitals that participate in chemical reactions (typically if the
orbital is incomplete). These electrons form chemical bonds.
Valence electrons
Atomic number is the same, but atomic mass is different because the atom gains or loses
neutrons.
Isotopes
when two or more atoms link together through the sharing or transfer of electrons
Molecules
Molecules composed of nonpolar covalent bonds are not H20 soluble.
Hydrophobic Interactions
molecules with polar regions or ionic bonds readily interact with polar regions of water. these molecules dissolve in water
Hydrophilic Interactions
combination of solutes dissolved in a solvent
Solution
any substance that dissolves in a liquid
Solute
the liquid in which a solute is dissolving
Solvent
The concentration of a solution
is
solute amount/volume of solution
a measure of how easily a solute dissolves in solution
Solubility. The more readily a solute dissolves the higher its solubility.
a way to express solute [ ] as a percentage of the total solution
Percent Solution
the number of moles of solute in a liter of solution (mol/L or M)
Molarity
A molecule that can release protons (H+) to a solution. A proton donor.
acid
Often a negatively charged ion that can combine with H+, and remove it from solution.
base
the concentration of H+ in body fluids
pH
pH =
log (1/[H+])
blood pH < 7.35
Acidosis
blood pH > 7.45
Alkalosis
System of molecules and ions that act to prevent changes in [H+] as we continually add acids
to the body through metabolism.
buffers
Molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen
organic molecules and in the body
they are biomolecules
combinations of elements attached to the carbon backbone
Functional groups
Found in organic acids (lactic, citric, and acetic acids). They can donate hydrogen ions.
Carboxyl group
Found in Alcohols (ethanol, methanol, etc).
Hydroxyl group
found in nucleic acids, used in energy transfer
Phosphate group
Two molecules may have exactly the same atoms arranged in same sequence, but differ in spatial orientation of a functional group.
Stereoisomers
isomers: right-handed
D (dextro)
isomers: left-handed
L (levo)
Organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and serve as a major source of
energy
Carbohydrates
Simple sugars
Monosaccharides
2 monosaccharides joined covalently
Disaccharides
Numerous monosaccharides joined covalently
Polysaccharides
Subunits of nucleic acids bonded together to form long polynucleotide chains.
Nucleotides (Monomer)
single ring of carbon and nitrogen
Pyrimidines
two rings of carbon and nitrogen
Purines
Basis of genetic code. Deoxyribose covalently bonded to 1 of 4 bases.
DNA
Consists of a single long chain of nucleotides joined together by sugar-phosphate bonds.
RNA
three types of RNA
(messenger, transfer, and ribosomal
covalently bonds to 4 bases
Ribose
these are used for communication and the capture and transfer of energy
Single Nucleotide Molecules
fluid portion of blood
plasma
fluid surrounding cells of the body and in the tissue
spaces
interstitial fluid
in biology refers to a tissue , but it also refers to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell or organelle
membrane
separates the intracellular and extracellular fluids
of cells and intracellular membranes compartmentalize organelles
cell membrane or plasma membrane
Composition of mostly lipid and protein and the ratio varies depending on the functionality
Cell Membrane
structure is due to the
hydrophobic/hydrophilic portions of the molecules
Double layer of phospholipids
found in all plasma membranes of higher organisms and adds flexibility to a
cell over a wide range of temperatures as well as prevents small water soluble molecules
from entering
Cholesterol
span (integral proteins) or partially span (peripheral proteins) the membrane and
allow the selective transport across the membrane along with other functions
proteins
Cell Membrane functions
- transport – channels, carriers
- enzymatic activity – act in metabolic pathways
- receptors – bind neurotransmitters or hormones
- intercellular joining – tight or gap junctions
- cell to cell recognition – glycoproteins act as tags that other cells recognize
Sugars attached to proteins (glycoprotein) or lipids (glycolipid) form
glycocalyx
The basic unit of structure and function of the body.
The Cell
3 principal parts of the cell:
- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm and organelles
- Nucleus
Contains the genetic material (DNA) and Nucleoli
Nucleus
One or more structures that are centers for ribosome production
Nucleoli
The cytoplasm includes:
- Cytosol
- Inclusions
- Protein Fibers
- Organelles
Ribosomes produce
proteins
a type of inclusion; do not have membranes and therefore have direct contact with
the aqueous cytosol
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are made of
rRNA molecules (serve as enzymes (ribozymes) required for protein synthesis and protein components)
form the spindle apparatus, cilia, flagella, and centrioles.
Microtubules
Tiny hair-like structures that project from the surface of the cell
Cilia
Simple whip-like structure that propels sperm through its environment
Flagella
Five important functions of cytoskeleton
- Cell Shape
- Internal Organization
- Intracellular Transport
- Assembly of cells into tissues
- Movement
Motor Proteins Create
Movement
Sites for energy production of all cells, Contain their own circular DNA
Mitochondria
Mitochondria Structure
Outer membrane: smooth. Inner membrane: cristae (folded structures).
Bears ribosomes on the surface and is active in protein synthesis
Granular (rough) ER
Provides site for enzyme reactions in steroid hormone production and inactivation as well
as fatty acid and lipid synthesis. Phospholipids are produced here and cholesterol is
modified into the steroid hormones
Agranular (smooth) ER
Stacks of hollow, flattened sacks called cisternae
Golgi Complex
Receiving side of Golgi Complex. Faces site for entry of vesicles from ER that contain cellular products.
Cis
Exiting side of Golgi Complex. Faces towards cell membrane and releases vesicles of chemically modified products.
Trans
modifies proteins, separates according to destination, and packages into vesicles
Golgi
? and ? compartmentalize mitochondrion space.
Cristae (contain ETC proteins), the mitochondrial matrix (innermost compartment where Krebs Cycle occurs)
membrane bound organelle containing over fifty different enzymes identified from various cell types
Lysosomes
A lysosome that contains only digestive enzymes (about 40 different enzymes) and it requires the pH of the organelle to drop to about 5 in order to activate the enzymes.
Primary Lysosome
Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole or organelle. Contain partially digested remnants of other organelles and organic material.
Secondary Lysosome
Contain undigested wastes. (May be exocytosed or accumulate with age)
Residual body
Process that destroys worn-out organelles, so that they can be continuously replaced.
Autophagy (self eating)
one of forty lysosomal storage
diseases, results when a missing lysosomal enzyme is unable to degrade a glycolipid in nerve cell membranes of the brain. Lysosomes swell with undigested lipid, causing motor weakness, mental retardation, blindness, and death by a year and a half.
Tay-Sachs disease (common in Jewish population)
Membrane-enclosed organelle storing enzymes; smaller than lysosomes
Peroxisomes
converts the toxic H202»_space; H20 + 02
Catalase
Oxidation of toxic molecules by peroxisomes is an important function of ? cells and lipid processing by peroxisomes is important to ?
liver and kidney, nerve cell membranes
contains the genes that code for the production of rRNA
DNA within nucleoli
Nucleolus produce
ribosomes
All of your genes. Roughly 25,000 genes.
Genome
Production of proteins
Proteome
can be spliced different ways (RNA splicing)
RNA coded by a gene
Combing proteins to give new proteins
polypeptide chains
Post translational modification. Modification of proteins. Added to proteins to give new proteins.
carbohydrates or lipids
Genetic material inside the nucleus. Non-dividing cell.
Chromatin
Chromatin that is on. Active in genetic transcription
Euchromatin
Uncoiling of euchromatin by adding carbon subunits.
Acetylation
Coiling back up by taking acetates away
Deacetylation
Chromatin within a nucleus that is off.
Heterochromatin
it’s estimated that about 300 genes out of the 25,000 are active in any given cell. This is
because cells become specialized in a process called ?.
differentiation
Differentiated cells come from
stem cells (embryonic tissue)
half of new molecule is part of old molecule
semiconservative replication
End caps, junk information
Telomeres
Cells that makes gametes
Germinal cells
found in germinal cells, cancer cells, any stem cell
telomerase
