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Histology > Lecture Exam 1 > Flashcards

Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What two substances are required for a myosin to contract?

A
  • ATP

- Ca2+

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2
Q

What is syncytia?

A

combining of muscle cells to become multinucleated

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3
Q

What are immunoglobulins

A

Antibodies, largest fraction

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4
Q

What are the granulocytes (NEB) and what are the agranulocytes (ML)?

A

Granulocytes: Nuetrophils, eosinophils, basophils (multilobed nuclei)
Agranulocytes: Monocytes, Lymphocytes (unlobed nuclei)

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5
Q

Diff between extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways.

A

Extrinsic: FASTER, release of tissue thromboplastin
Intrinsic: SLOWER, exposure of collagen

Extrinsic just has fewer steps

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6
Q

Where is desmin located?

A

muscle cells

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7
Q

Basophils turn into what in tissues?

A

Mast Cells

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8
Q

Adipocytes are derived from what?

A

Lipoblasts

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9
Q

What three cell junctions form intercalated discs?

A
  • Desmosomes
  • Fascia aherens
  • Gap junctions
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10
Q

Relationship between axon diameter and speed of signal?

A

Larger axon = faster signal

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11
Q

Name for active DNA in the process of transcription

A

Euchromatin (lightly staining)

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12
Q

Primary function of neutrophils?

A

phagocytosis

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13
Q

How to eosinophils function?

A
  • modulate infalmmatory response
  • release granules in response to helminthic parasites
  • release other cytokines and signalling molecules
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14
Q

What do 2’ (specific granules) granules contain?

A

Lysozyme and alkaline phosphatases (variable staining)

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15
Q

Condition with large amounts of erythrocyte precursors in circulation

A

Megaloblastic anemia

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16
Q

What are the two subunits of ribosomes?

A

40s and 60s

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17
Q

What three glycoproteins are present in the basement membrane?

A

Laminin, enactin, tenascin (sounds like athlete’s foot products)

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18
Q

Is epithelia vascular or avascular?

A

Avascular!

**never penetrated by blood vessels

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19
Q

Names for the cytoplasm, rER, and plasma membrane in a neuron?

A
  • Cytoplasma: perikaryon
  • rER: nissl substance
  • Membrane: neurilemma
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20
Q

What organelle is the principle organelle involved in detox and conjunction of drugs and toxins.

A

sER

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21
Q

What is a graded response? Mm

A

Refers to # of muscel fibers contracting at a given moment

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22
Q

What is H&E staining? What does each stain bind to?

A 
H= hematoxylin, blue, basic dye that stains acids
E= eosin, red/pink, acidic dye that stains bases
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23
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

A

Coordinate muscular activity, posture, and equilibrium

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24
Q

What are the three plasma proteins?

A
  • Albumins: trans insoluble molecules
  • Globulins: trans lipids and heavy metal ions, immunoglobulins
  • Fibrinogens: synth soluble fibrin that is turned to fibrinogen for clotting
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25
Q

What is a plasmalemma

A

semi-permeable cell membrane of animal cells

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26
Q

What is karyotyping?

A

sorting of chromosome pairs according to size and shape

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27
Q

Vit B12 and B9 deficiency cause an increase in what cells?

A

Macrocytes

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28
Q

Where does hemopoiesis occur during fetal development vs in adulthood?

A

Fetus: 1st tri-blood islands in wall of yolk sac, 2nd tri-liver and lymphatic tissue, last month in bone marrow
Adulthood: vascular sinuses of bone marrow, skull, ribs, sternum, vert, pelvis, some long bones

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29
Q

What plasma protein functions as transporter of insoluble metabolites?

A

albumins

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30
Q

An overall reduction in leukocytes could mean what?

A

defective function of bone marrow

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31
Q

What is the nuclear lamina?

A

network of filaments that provide nuclear support

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32
Q

What are the three neuronal support cells and where are they located?

A
  • Neuroglia: CNS
  • Schwann Cells: PNS
  • Satellite Cells: Ganglia
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33
Q

Where are ribosomes synthesized vs where are they found after synthesis?

A

Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleus. Found free in cytoplasm adn attached to rER and outer nuclear membrane.

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34
Q

How are neuromuscular spindles and neurotendinous spindles different?

A

Neuromuscular: in belly of muscle, sense changes in length
Neurotendinous: (golgi tendon organs) within tendon, sensitive to tension

They are both intrafusal fibers

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35
Q

9 Steps of Tissue Prep

A
  1. Place cut tissue in cassette
  2. Dehydrate with alcohol baths and xylene
  3. Embed in liquid paraffin or plastic resin
  4. Microtoming (6-7 micrometers)
  5. Mount on slides
  6. Remove paraffin
  7. Rehydrate with alcohol and xylene
  8. Stain (H&E most common)
  9. Coverslip
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36
Q

How can keratin help with tumor id?

A

Different epithelia produce different keratin. 54 kinds in humans

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37
Q

“Lamp Brush Chromosomes” are made up of what?

A

Euchromatin

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38
Q

What is the glycocalyx? What does it do?

A

Group of glycoproteins and glycolipids on outside of cell. Protects surface of cell membrane, cell recognition

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39
Q

How wide is a RBC?

A

6-8 micrometers

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40
Q

Type 4 Collagen

  • where is it found
  • does NOT form what?
A
  • found in basement membrane

- does NOT form fibers

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41
Q

What method is used to determine the presence of tumor/metastasis?

A

Elevated mitotic index. Determins relative level of mitosis of cells in a tissue.

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42
Q

Marfan’s Syndrome is caused by what?

A

autosomal dominant condition results in abnormal elastic fibers

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43
Q

What cell is responsible for minimizing “friendly fire”?

A

T-Cells (defects in T-Cell formation thought to be cause of autoimmune diseases)

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44
Q

What are the steps of mitosis?

A

PMAT

  • Prophase: chromosomes condense and connect w/ kinetochore, centrioles go to ends of cell w/ interpolar microtubules between them, nuclear membrane disappears
  • (Prometaphase): mitotic spindles attach to chromosomes at kinetochore
  • Metaphase: chrom line up at metaphase plate
  • Anaphase: centromeres split and chrom migrate
  • Telophase: mitotic spindle disaggregates, nuc envelope and nucleoli reappear, cleavage furrow, cytokinesis
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45
Q

What are common sites of marrow aspiration/biopsy?

A

sternum, iliac crest, tibia (in children)

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46
Q

What are the largest neuroglial cells?

A

Astrocytes

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47
Q

Philia and osis vs penia?

A

Philia and osis: increase (usually due to infection)

Penia: decrease (immune suppression/tumor)

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48
Q

What are the three cells that make up connective tissue?

A
  • Fibroblasts: most common, spindle shaped, myrofibroblasts (fibroblasts with contractile ability)
  • Retifular cells: fibroblast in lymph nodes and bone marrow, synth reticular fibers
  • Adipocytes: fat cells
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49
Q

What is in the buffy coat?

A

WBCs and platelets

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50
Q

Describe mitotic spindles

A
  • formed during mitosis

- control distribution of chromosomes in daughter cells

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51
Q

What are common sites of marrow aspiration/biopsy?

A

sternum, iliac crest, tibia (in children)

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52
Q

What are the two types of lymphocytes?

A

B-cells

T-cells

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53
Q

Diff between single and multi unit smooth Mm contraction?

A

Single: (tonic) fibers contract as unit, visceral sm mm of gut

Multi: (phasic) individual fibers contract independently

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54
Q

What causes trisomies?

A

-Failure of homologous chromosome pairs to separate in first meiotic division
OR
-Failure of sister chromatids to separate during 2nd meiotic division (anaphase lag)

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55
Q

The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with what?

A

The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rER and is studded with ribosomes

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56
Q

What keeps microtubules from spontaneously dissassembling?

A

capping proteins

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57
Q

Mitochondria are present in all cells EXCEPT?

A

Mitochondria are NOT found in RBCs and keratinocytes

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58
Q

What kind of connective tissue is found in ligaments, tendons, and aponeuroses?

A

Dense regular connective tissue

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59
Q

What happens to satellite cells following muscle injury?

A

Differentiate into myoblasts

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60
Q

Names for the cytoplasm, rER, and plasma membrane in a neuron?

A
  • Cytoplasma: perikaryon
  • rER: nissl substance
  • Membrane: neurilemma
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61
Q

What organelle functions in post translational modification and sorting of proteins?

A

Golgi Apparatus

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62
Q

Tay-Sachs, Gaucher’s disease, are both examples of what? Explain what causes it.

A
  • Lysosomal storage diseases.

- congenital disorder, mutation in gene for lysosomal enzyme, substrates build up in cells

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63
Q

Name the intermediate filaments

A
  • cytokeratin
  • vimentin
  • desmin
  • neurofilament proteins
  • GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein)
  • lamin
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64
Q

In Eukaryotes, the nucleus contains the what? And it makes up what percentage of the nuclear mass?

A
  • The genome

- DNA of the genome makes up <20% of nuclear mass

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65
Q

Raised neutrophil count means what?

A

ACUTE inflammatory response (ie bacterial infections)

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66
Q

What is clonal deletion?

A

removal of T-cells that react to “self” molecules in thymus

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67
Q

Cytochromes are ________ on the inner membrane of ______?

A

Cytochromes are ENZYMES on the inner membrane of CRISTAE.

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68
Q

Where is cytokeratin located?

A

epidermis of skin

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69
Q

Three functions of epithelium

A
  • cover body surfaces
  • lines cavities
  • forms glands
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70
Q

How do mature RBCs produce ATP?

A

Anaerobic glycolysis

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71
Q

Where is endocardium thicker and why?

A

Thicker in atria b/c of greater turbulence

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72
Q

What space separates the inner and outer layer of the nuclear envelope?

A

Nuclear cisterna

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73
Q

How do neutrophils function?

A
  • attracted by chemotactic factors to damaged tissue
  • coat organisms with antibodies
  • phagocytosis (respiratory burst)
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74
Q

Extrinsic coagulation pathway is initiated by what?

A

Initiated by thromboplastin

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75
Q

Connective tissue is derived from what germ layer?

A

Mesodermal mesenchyme

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76
Q

What tissue is lamin found in?

A

forms layer on inside of nuclear membrane

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77
Q

Loose aereolar connective tissue is normally located in what three locations?

A
  • beneath epithelia
  • around Nn
  • around vessels
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78
Q

Monocytes turn into what when they enter tissue?

A

Macrophages

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79
Q

An overall rise in leukocytes could mean what?

A

malignant tumor in bone marrow

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80
Q

What does terminally differentiated mean? What are facultative dividers?

A

TD: cells lose capacity to divide
FD: retain capacity for division with proper stimulus

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81
Q

What is actin made of?

A

G-actin, polymerizes to form F-actin, 2 F-actin strands form double helix to make actin

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82
Q

The cell cortex is made of what and does what?

A
  • made of actin linked to filamin

- makes a support meshwork that prevents the cell from deforming

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83
Q

What determines the physical properties of connective tissue?

A

Extracellular material

  • ground substance
  • fibers (ie collagen, reticulin, elastin)
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84
Q

What are the two components of elastic fibers? How are they organized?

A

Elastin and fibrillin. Organized in highly branched, random coiling pattern

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85
Q

Describe the process of collgen synthesis.

A

Glycoprotein->procollagen->tropocollagen-> collagen microfibril->collagen fiber->collagen bundle

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86
Q

What plasma protein functions as transporter for lipids and heavy metals ions?

A

Globulins

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87
Q

What is screted by the kidney and controls hemopoiesis?

A

Erythropoietin

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88
Q

What is Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

immune-mediated demyelination in PNS, is resolveable

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89
Q

Decreasing cholesterol does what to fluidity?

A

Increases fluidity

90
Q

Ratio of actin : myosin in skeletal and smooth Mm

A

Skeletal: 2:1
Smooth: 15:1

91
Q

Neutrophils are associated with what kindof inflammation?

A

Acute: 1 wk - 10 days

92
Q

What is Trisomy 21?

A

Downs Syndrome

93
Q

What is the purpose of a junctional complex?

A

Forms diffusion barrier between cells. Prevents paracellular transport.

94
Q

Peripheral vs Integral vs Transmembrane Membrane proteins

A 
Peripheral = surface (extrinsic)
Integral = within membrane (intrinsic)
Transmembrane = spanning both sides (transmural)
95
Q

The arachnoid and pia mater are often difficult to separate. What are they called when combined?

A

Leptomeninges

96
Q

What tissue is vimentin found in?

A

mesodermal cells of mesenchymal origin (endothelial cells, muscle and neuroectodermal cells)

97
Q

What is a graded response? Mm

A

Refers to # of muscel fibers contracting at a given moment

98
Q

Where is neurofilament proteins located?

A

nerve cells

99
Q

Where do platelets come from?

A

Megakaryocytes (large, multilobed nucleus) in bone marrow. Demarcation channels in cytoplasm where platelets “tear off”

100
Q

What stain is used for fungi?

A

Silver stain

101
Q

What is myelopoiesis?

A

white blood cell production

102
Q

What is the most predominant GAG and what do bacteria use to destroy it?

A

Hyaluronic Acid, Hyaluronidase

103
Q

Porin is found in which mitochondrial membrane?

A

Porin is found in the outer mitochondrial membrane

104
Q

Raised eosinophil count means what?

A

allergies and/or parasitic infection

105
Q

How does mycobacterium tuberculosis abvoid phagocytosis?

A

Prevents macrophages by preventing it from fusing phagosomes with lysosomes

106
Q

What chemical “fixes” a cell and how does it do it?

A
  • Formalin (37% formaldehyde)

- cross-linking of proteins

107
Q

Describe 2’ lysosomes and how do they turn into 3’ lysosomes?

A
  • “phagolysosomes”
  • function in intracellular digestion
  • hydrolytic breakdown results in production of 3’ lysosomes
108
Q

What is a nucleosome?

A

segement of inactive DNA that wraps around histones

109
Q

What structure connects the inner and outer nuclear membranes and what proteins make up this structure?

A

Nuclear pore complex connects the two layers. Nucleoporins regulate exchange of macromolecules between nucleus and cytoplasm.

110
Q

Type 2 Collagen

-makes what two kinds of collagen?

A
  • Hyalin (joints)

- Elastic (ear, elastin fibers)

111
Q

What causes trisomies?

A

-Failure of homologous chromosome pairs to separate in first meiotic division
OR
-Failure of sister chromatids to separate during 2nd meiotic division (anaphase lag)

112
Q

What tissue is GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) found in?

A

Glial (support) cells of the nervous system (astrocytes)

113
Q

What microfilament is found inside microvilli?

A

Actin

114
Q

Describe 1’ lysosomes and how do they turn in to 2’ lysosomes?

A
  • newly formed from rER and golgi
  • inactive
  • fuse to phagocytic vesicles to turn into 2’ lysosomes
115
Q

Why ALS non reversible?

A

ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Lou Gherig’s Disease) is death of somatic motor neurons in CNS. These neurons are in G0 phase and cannot differentiate.

116
Q

Type 3 Collagen

  • made of what
  • what is it used for
  • what stain is used to see it?
A
  • made of reticular fibers
  • used for structural support in organs
  • stains with silver stain (argyrophilic)
117
Q

How do basophils function?

A
  • contain proteoglycans mixture of heparin and chondroitin sulfate
  • contain histamine, SRS, and ECF-A
118
Q

Common symptom of cytoskeleton abnormalities

A

blistering of the skin. Cytoskeleton is responsbile for cell-cell ashesion

119
Q

What is a Barr Body?

A

Degenerate X chromosome in females, made of heterochromatin

120
Q

What are the fixed tissue macrophages?

A
  • Kupfer cells (liver)
  • Microglial cells (CNS)
  • Langerhans cells (skin)
  • Dust cells (lungs)
  • Osteoclasts (bone)
121
Q

What is thrombocytosis?

A

excess platelets in circulation

122
Q

What is a Howell-Jolly body?

A

occasional basophilic nuclear remnants visible within cytoplasm of RBC

123
Q

Describe the structure of an axoneme

A

9 doublets surrounding central doublet and connected by a spoke. 9 radial doublets connected by nexin

124
Q

Gound substance is mostly made of what?

A

GAG’s: glycosaminoglycans

125
Q

During apoptosis, why do cells swell up?

A

Na+ pumps stop so it builds up in the cell. Water follows Na+ and eventually lyses the cell.

126
Q

What tissue are neurofilament proteins found in?

A

neurons

127
Q

Is epithelia vascular or avascular?

A

Avascular!

**never penetrated by blood vessels

128
Q

Larger nerves containing multiple fascicles are surrounded by ______?

A

Epineurium

129
Q

Describe the process of apoptosis.

A
  • Pyknosis: condensation of chromatin and nuc shrinks
  • cell swells
  • autolysis: lysosomes release catalytic enzymes into cytoplasm
  • karyolysis and karyohexis initiated by caspace cascade
130
Q

Z-discs act as what??

A

Anchoring points for actin myofilaments

131
Q

What is the buffy coat

A

WBCs and platelets

132
Q

What three glycoproteins are present in the basement membrane?

A

Laminin, enactin, tenascin (sounds like athlete’s foot products)

133
Q

What is a reticulocyte?

A

immature RBC with stippled cytoplasm (caused by RNA remnants)

134
Q

What is Trisomy 13?

A

Patau Syndrome

135
Q

What is Trisomy 18?

A

Edward Syndrome

136
Q

What is myasthenia gravis?

A

autoimmune disease that produces antibodies to acetylcholine receptors which causes muscle weakness.

Tx with achetylcholinase inhibitors
Beagle Experiment

137
Q

Describe 3’lysosomes

A
  • “residual body”
  • can be excreted or remain in cell for life
  • can become lipofuscin pigment granules in neurons
138
Q

What molecule is able to diffuse across the mitochondrial membrane to be used as a source of energy?

A

Pyruvic acid (derived from glucose)

139
Q

What microfilament is found inside microvilli?

A

Actin

140
Q

Basophils are characterized by large, basophilic ___ granules.

A

2’ granules, contain hydrolytic enzymes, heparin sulfate, chondroiton sulfate, hsitamine, leukotrienes

141
Q

What is parenchyma?

A

Cells that make up the functional elements of an organ.

142
Q

Do B or T-cells have an anamnestic response?

A

Some of BOTH B and T-cells do not replicate but remain as memory cells

143
Q

Eosinophils are characterized by large eosinophilic __ granules.

A

2’ granules, contain histaminase, eosinophil peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, major basic protein

144
Q

What is the purpose of fibronectin?

A

foudn in basement membrane and aids in adhesion between cell membrane and ECM

145
Q

What does holocrine mean?

A

Entire cell ruptures/secreted

146
Q

What two structures form microtubules?

A

Alpha and beta tubulin

147
Q

What is hematocrit

A

volume of RBCs

148
Q

When a cell needs to produce more mitochondria? What does it do?

A

Nothing! Mitochondria have their own circular DNA and replicate via binary fission like bacteria.

149
Q

What happens to a cell if it is unfixed?

A

Autolyze/denature

150
Q

Why does cytoplasm become eosinophilic during apoptosis?

A

Proteins are broken down in the cytoplasm. Protein fragments are basic so red acidic dye binds.

151
Q

What is Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?

A
  • affects Type 5 collagen

- hyperextension of joints, skin fragility, and poor wound healing

152
Q

What is an excess of collagen called? Excess fibroplasia?

A

Kleoid (scar)

153
Q

Name for inactive DNA. How does it stain?

A

Heterochromatin, darkly staining

154
Q

What stain is used for bacteria?

A

Gram stains

155
Q

What is unique about prokaryotic DNA, and flagella?

A

DNA: it is circular
Flagella: lacks an axoneme

156
Q

What is serum?

A

plasma not including clotting factors

157
Q

What do antithrombin and heparin do?

A

anticoagulants

158
Q

Type 1 Collagen

-Where is it found?

A

loose and dense connective tissue, tendons, ligaments, bone and fibrocartilage

159
Q

What leukocytes has antiparasitic functions?

A

Eosinophils

160
Q

What are the steps of Interphase?

A

GSGM

  • G1: 1st gap phase (cell growth, hypertrophy)
  • S: synthesis (replication of DNA and centrioles)
  • G2: 2nd gap phase (prep for mitosis, synth of ATP and tubulin for mitotic spindle)
  • M: mitosis (karyokinesis ie. chromosome halves, cytokinesis ie. cell division)
161
Q

What does fibrinogen do?

A

catalyzed by prothrombin->thrombin which polymerizes it to form fibrin for clotting

162
Q

What are margination, pavementing, and diapedesis?

A

Methods which leukocytes leave circulation

163
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitter for sympathetic vs parasympathetic ns?

A

SNS: noradrenaline
PNS: acetylcholine

164
Q

What are the components of protoplasm?

A
  • 70% water
  • electrolytes
  • proteins
  • lipids
  • carbohydrates
165
Q

What is syncytia?

A

combining of muscle cells to become multinucleated

166
Q

What tissue is desmin found in?

A

unique to muscle cells; mesodermal origin

167
Q

What blood related condition might occure due to chromic blood loss or severe or chronic infections?

A

Reticulocytosis: inc in reticulocytes in circulation (left shift)

168
Q

What cell cycle phase can become permanent?

A

G0 phase (can lose capacity to divide, neurons and cardiac myocytes)

169
Q

What does smooth muscle have instead of troponin and how does it work?

A

Smooth Mm uses CALMODULIN.

-Binds Ca+ and activates myosin cross-binding

170
Q

What kind of epithelium lines cavities that connect with the outside environment?

A

Mucous Membrane

171
Q

What is screted by the kidney and controls hemopoiesis?

A

Erythropoietin

172
Q

What allows ribosomes to attach to the rER?

A

Receptor molecules specialized for ribosomal attachment.

173
Q

Describe the structure of a diplosome

A

two centrioles at 90 deg to each other. Each made of a cylinder of 9 triplets of microtubules

174
Q

What is the mitotic index?

A

proportion of cells in tissue in mitosis at any given time. Tumors have higher score

175
Q

What neurotransmitter is used as a vasoconstrictor in the instrinsic pathway?

A

Serotonin

176
Q

B-cells produce what and undergo what process after encountering Ag?

A

They produce antibodies and undergo clonal expansion to make more Ab producing cells

177
Q

How do monocytes function?

A
  • process antigen and present to immune cells

- secrete cytokine involved in tissue repair

178
Q

What tissue is (cyto)keratin found in?

A

all epithelial cells

in epidermis of skin forms tonofibrils

179
Q

What is Trisomy 13?

A

Patau Syndrome

180
Q

Larger nerves containing multiple fascicles are surrounded by ______?

A

Epineurium

181
Q

What kind of epithelium lines blood and lymph vessels?

A

Endothelium

182
Q

What does polio affect?

A

Poliomyelitis (myelitis=inflam of spinal cord) affects alpha-motor neurons of vntral horn of spinal cord.

183
Q

Where is vimentin located?

A

endothelial cells , muscle and neuroectodermal cells

184
Q

What are inclusions?

A
  • nonliving components of cells (ie. fat drops, pigments, etc)
  • viral inclusions
  • melanin (black/brown)
  • lipofuscin (gold-brown, old age pigment)
185
Q

Intrinsic pathway initiated by what?

A

Initiated by exposure of collagen

186
Q

What two motor proteins attach to microtubules to function in intracellular movement?

A

Dynein and kynesin

187
Q

What does smooth muscle have instead of z-discs?

A

Dense bodies

188
Q

Where is lamin located?

A

forms layer on inside of nuclear membrane

189
Q

What is the best known collagenopathy?

A

Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

-hyperextension of joints and poor wound healing

190
Q

Wallerian vs Anterograde regeneration?

A

Wallerian: death of an axon
Retrograde: death of soma

191
Q

What are the three steps of neuron regeneration?

A
  1. Schwann cells multiply to physically bridge gap
  2. Nerve axons sprout neurites from PROXIMAL stump
  3. Nuerites grow into distal stump.
192
Q

An overall reduction in leukocytes could mean what?

A

defective function of bone marrow

193
Q

What is stroma?

A

Cells that make up framework of organ.

194
Q

What neuroglia are the smallest neuroglial cells?

A

Microglia: come from monocytes, have immune function

195
Q

Does nuclear material begin to fragment at karyolysis or karyohexis?

A

Karyohexis

196
Q

What two processes do mitochondria use to produce ATP?

A

Kreb’s Cycle and oxidative phosphorylation

197
Q

Cardiac myocytes have __ t-tubule and __ cisterna of ER

A

One, one (diad)

198
Q

_______ -> thrombin -> ________ -> _______

A

Prothrombin -> thrombin -> fibrinogen -> fibrin (insoluble)

199
Q

Wallerian vs Anterograde regeneration?

A

Wallerian: death of an axon
Retrograde: death of soma

200
Q

What is the smallest filament? What does it do?

A

Microfilaments, maintains cell shape, facilitates shape change

201
Q

What structure acts like a “manhole cover”?

A

Tropomyosin which covers binding site on actin filament

202
Q

What are the three types of T-cells?

A
  • Cytotoxic/Killer T(Tc/Tk): destroy cells with foreign antigens
  • Helper T (Th): sound chemical alarm
  • Suppressor (Ts): suppress B-cells, autoimmune dis
203
Q

What is the order of cardiac induction?

4 parts

A

SA Node -> AV Node -> Bundle of His -> Purkinje Fibers

204
Q

Actin and myosin overlap in the _ ______?

A

A band

205
Q

What does Parkinson’s affect?

A

neurodegenerative disease causes death of SUBSTANTIA NIGRA

206
Q

What is a Stab Cell?

A

immature neutrophil, large number common in chronic infections

207
Q

How does Alzheimer’s develop?

A

form of dimentia caused by neural plaques and fibrillary tangles

208
Q

The INNER matrix of mitochondria contain dense granules. What do these granules do?

A

Thought to be binding/storage sites for Ca2+

209
Q

What two layers make up cardiac valves?

A

lamina fibrosa covered by endothelium

210
Q

What does terminally differentiated mean? What are facultative dividers?

A

TD: cells lose capacity to divide
FD: retain capacity for division with proper stimulus

211
Q

What does smooth muscle have instead of T-tubules?

A

Caveolae (extracellular storage of Ca+)

212
Q

What do 1’ (asurophilic) granules contain?

A

Lysosomal enzymes (stain blue-purple)

213
Q

What mutation causes sickel cell conditions?

A

Single AA substitution (valine for glutamic acid at position 6 of Beta-globulin chain. Changes 3D structure of Hb

214
Q

Why might it be difficult to isolate the dura mater in the skull?

A

Because it fuses with the periosteum. In the spinal cord is it is surrounded by epidural space.

215
Q

How are neuromuscular spindles and neurotendinous spindles different?

A

Neuromuscular: in belly of muscle, sense changes in length
Neurotendinous: (golgi tendon organs) within tendon, sensitive to tension

They are both intrafusal fibers

216
Q

What connects the ECS with ER and intracellular environment of muscle fibers?

A

Transverse tubule system

217
Q

During what two phases are chromosomes visible and why?

A

During S and M phases. Chromosomes condense

218
Q

The convex is what face of golgi. The concave face is what face of the golgi?

A

Convex: forming
Concave: maturing (clathrin coated vesicles)

219
Q

Why might it be difficult to isolate the dura mater in the skull?

A

Because it fuses with the periosteum. In the spinal cord is it is surrounded by epidural space.

220
Q

Why do malignant cells have large dark nuclei?

A

Increased chromatin and extra numbers of chromosomes

221
Q

What is serum?

A

Plasma - clotting factors = serum

222
Q

What kind of epithelium lines the body cavities? (perotineal, pleaural, pericardial)

A

Mesothelium

Histology (4 decks)

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