Lecture: Exam 1 Flashcards
study of the STRUCTURE of the body
anatomy
the study of tissues
histology
what type of macroscopic anatomy are we focusing on?
systemic
what are the major organs in the integumentary system?
skin, hair, sweat glands, and nails
what are the functions of the integumentary system?
protects against the environment, helps regulate body temp, and provides sensory information
what are the major organs of the skeletal system?
bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, and bone marrow
what are the functions of the skeletal system?
provides support and protection for other tissues, stores calcium and other minerals, and forms blood cells
what are the major organs of the endocrine system?
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, and endocrine tissues
what are the functions of the endocrine system?
directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems, adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body, and controls many structural and functional changes during development
what are the major organs of the lymphatic system?
spleen thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and tonsils
what are the functions of the lymphatic system?
defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to the blood stream, synthesizes vitamin D, and responsible for initiation of the immune system
what are the major organs of the digestive system?
teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, large intestine, gallbladder, and pancreas
what are the functions of the digestive system?
processes and digests food, absorbs and conserves water, absorbs nutrients, and stores energy reserves
what are the major organs of the male reproductive system?
testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, and scrotum
what are the functions of the male reproductive system?
produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones
what are the major organs in the muscular system?
skeletal muscles and associated tendons
what are the functions of the muscular system?
provides movement, provides protection and support for other tissues, and generates heat that maintains body temperature
what are the major organs of the nervous system?
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and sense organs
what are the functions of the nervous system?
directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems, and provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
what are the major organs of the cardiovascular system?
heart, blood, and blood vessels
what are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials, distributes heat and assists in the control of body temperature, and distributes hormones, nutrients, and gases; picks up waste products
what are the major organs of the respiratory system?
nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, lungs, trachea, bronchi, and alveoli
what are the functions of the respiratory system?
delivers air to the alveoli, provides oxygen to the bloodstream, removes co2 from the bloodstream, and produces sounds for communication
what are the major organs of the urinary system?
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
what are the functions of the urinary system?
excretes waste products from the blood, controls water balance by regulating the volume of urine produced, stores urine prior to voluntary elimination, regulates blood ion concentrations and pH, and filters the blood
what are the major organs of the female reproductive system?
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, and mammary glands
what are the functions of the female reproductive system?
produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones, supports developing embryo from conception to delivery, and provides milk to nourish newborn infant
cavities surround lungs
pleural
space between lungs
mediastinum
cavity within the mediastinum and surrounds the heart
pericardial
layer attached to (lines) cavity wall
parietal
layer attached to (directly covers) organ
visceral
the primary method of obtaining a clinical image of a body part for diagnostic purposes
radiography
can pass through soft tissues, but are absorbed by dense tissues, including bone, teeth, and tumors
x-ray
what is the second most widely used imaging method?
ultrasound
can visualize most organ systems and is frequently used in the ER to determine if someone has experienced internal bleeding; shows the location of the placenta and helps evaluate fetal age, position, and development
ultrasound
a modified three-dimensional x-ray technique used primarily to view blood vessels; involves taking radiographs prior to and after injecting an opaque contrast dye into the blood vessel
digital subtraction angiography
useful in identifying tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, cerebral hemorrhages, and other abnormalities
computed tomography (CT)
better than a CT scan for distinguishing between soft tissues, such as the white and gray matter of the nervous system; developed as a non-invasive technique to visualize soft tissues
MRI
provide the means to map brain function based upon local oxygen concentration differences in blood flow
fMRI
used both to analyze the metabolic state of tissue at a given moment in time and to determine which tissues are most active; used to detect whether certain cancers have metastasized throughout the body
position emission tomography (PET)
hypothetical or imaginary flat surface that passes through the body
plane (axis)
divides the body into a top (superior) and bottom (inferior) portion
transverse (or horizontal) plane
divides the body into a front (anterior) and a back (posterior) side
frontal or coronal plane
divides the body into a left and right portion
sagittal plane
runs directly down the midline
midsaggital plane
a plane that is any type of angle other than horizontal or vertical angle
oblique plane
slice parallel to an axis
section
in front of; toward the front surface
anterior
in back of; toward the back surface
posterior
closer to the head
superior
inferior
closer to the feet
at the head end
cranial (cephalic)
toward the midline of the body
medial
away from the midline of the body
lateral
on the inside, internal to another structure
deep
furthest from point of attachment to trunk
distal
toward the belly side of the human body
ventral
toward the back side of the human body
dorsal
toward the nose or mouth
rostral
at the rear or tail end
caudal
on the same side
ipsilateral
on the opposite side
contralateral
on the outside, external to another structure
superficial
closest to the point of attachment to trunk
proximal
a group of similar cells specialized to perform a specific function
tissues
cover surfaces, line spaces/passageways, form glands; many subtypes, classified by shape of cells and layering of cells
epithelial tissues
fill internal spaces, support other tissues, transport materials, and store lipids; widely varied subtypes, classified by physical properties
connective tissues
in skeletal muscles, the heart, and walls of various hollow/tubular organs
muscle tissues
in brain, spinal cord, and nerves
neural tissues
what are the functions of epithelial tissues?
cover surfaces of the body, line various spaces and passageways of the body, line hollow organs, line body cavities, line tubes of various types, form protective barriers, control permeability, and produce specialized secretion
what are the characteristics of epithelial cells?
composed mostly of tightly-packed cells, attachment between cells and to a common base also known as the basement membrane, cells may be specialized for certain functions, exhibit polarity, avascular, and can regenerate
one layer of cells all in direct contact with basement membrane
simple epithelium
single layer of thin, flat irregularly shaped cells resembling floor tiles; the single nucleus of each cell bulges at its center
simple squamous
what are the functions of simple squamous epithelial tissue?
rapid diffusion, filtration, and some secretion in serous membranes
where are simple squamous epithelial tissues located?
amnion, inner layer of membrane around the embryo; air sacs in lungs; lining of heart chambers and lumen of blood vessels; serous membranes of body cavities
a single layer of cells about as tall as they are wide; spherical, centrally located nucleus
simple cuboidal
what are the functions of simple cuboidal epithelial tissues?
absorption and secretion
where are simple cuboidal epithelial tissues located?
kidney tubules; thyroid gland follicles; ducts and secretory regions of most glands; surface of ovary
a single layer of tall, narrow cells; oval-shaped nucleus oriented lengthwise in the basal region of the cell; apical regions of cells have microvilli; may contain goblet cells that secrete mucin
non-ciliated simple columnar
what are the functions of non-ciliated simple columnar epithelial tissues?
absorption and secretion; secretion of mucin
where are non-ciliated simple columnar epithelial tissues located?
the lining of most of the digestive tract; the lining of the stomach does not contain goblet cells
a single layer of tall, narrow, ciliated cells; oval-shaped nucleus oriented lengthwise in the basal region of the cell; goblet cells may be present
ciliated simple columnar
what are the functions of ciliated simple columnar epithelial tissues?
secrection of mucin and movement of mucus along apical surface of epithelium by action of cilia; oocyte movement through uterine tube
where are ciliated simple columnar epithelial tissues located?
lining of uterine tubes and larger bronchioles of respiratory tract
a single layer of cells with varying heights that appears multilayered; all cells connect to the basement membrane, but not all cells reach the apical surface. the ciliated form has goblet cells and cilia; the non-ciliated form lacks goblet cells and cilia
pseudostratified columnar
what are the functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissues?
protection; ciliated form also involved in secretion of mucin and movement of mucus across surface by ciliary action
where are pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissues located?
ciliated form lines most of the respiratory tract, including the nasal cavity, part of the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Non-ciliated form is rare, lines epididymis and part of male urethra
two or more layers of cells, only deepest cell layer in direct contact with basement membrane
stratified epithelium
multiple layers of cells; basal cells typically are cuboidal or polyhedral, whereas apical (superficial) cells are squamous; move superficial cells are dead and filled with the protein keratin
keratinized stratified squamous
what is the function of keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissues?
protection of underlying tissue
where are keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissues located?
epidermis of skin
multiple layers of cells; basal cells typically are cuboidal or polyhedral, whereas apical cells are squamous; surface cells are alive and kept moist
nonkeratinized stratified squamous
what is the function of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissues?
protection of underlying tissue
where are nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissues located?
lining of vagina, oral cavity, part of pharynx, esophagus, and anus
two or more layers of cells; cells at the apical surface are cuboidal
stratified cuboidal
what is the function of stratified cuboidal epithelial tissues?
protection and secretion
where are stratified cuboidal epithelial tissues located?
found in large ducts in most exocrine glands and in some parts of the male urethra
two or more layers of cells; cells at the apical surface are columnar
stratified columnar
what is the function of stratified columnar epithelial tissues?
protection and secretion
where are stratified columnar epithelial tissues located?
rare; found in some regions of the male urethra and large ducts of some exocrine glands
epithelial appearance varies, depending on whether the tissue is stretched or relaxed; the shape of cells at apical surface; some cells may be binucleated
transitional
what are the functions of transitional epithelial tissues?
distension and relaxation to accommodate urine volume changes in bladder, ureters, and urethra
where are transitional epithelial tissues located?
lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and part of urethra
collection of epithelial cells that produce a secretion
gland
release secretion into internal fluids (no ducts used)
endocrine
release secretion via ducts (tubular passageways) onto the surface of an epithelial tissue
exocrine
watery secretion (sweat)
serous gland
thick, slimy secretion (contains mucin protein)
mucous gland
both serous and mucous secretion (saliva)
mixed gland
unicellular glands, scattered among the cells of various epithelial tissues (simple columnar, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, etc.)
goblet cells
what are the functions of connective tissues?
fill internal spaces, support other tissues, transport materials, and store lipids
what are the common factors of connective tissues?
each type has its on collection of specialized cells, have extra-cellular protein fibers, and the cells and proteins are immersed in a substance produced by the cells themselves
ground substance + protein fibers
matrix
connect other tissues together, protect organs, store lipids; found all over the body around blood vessels, around nerves, on top of and around the abdominal organs, between skin and muscle, etc.)
connective tissues proper
mostly protein fibers (little ground substance), tough
dense tissues
densely packed collagen fibers are parallel to the direction of stress
dense regular
what is the function of dense regular connective tissues?
provides great strength and flexibility primarily in a single direction
where are dense regular connective tissues located?
tendons and ligaments
densely packed collagen fibers are interwoven; fibers are irregularly clumped together and project in all directions
dense irregular
what is the function of dense irregular connective tissues?
provides tensile strength in all directions
where are dense irregular connective tissues located?
dermis of skin; capsules of organs
elastic and collagen fibers are arranged irregularly
elastic connective tissue
what are the functions of elastic connective tissue?
provides framework and supports organs
where are elastic connective tissues located?
walls of large arteries; elastic connections of vertebral spinous processes
maintain and repair extracellular matrix; store materials
resident cells
abundant, large, relatively flat cells, often with tapered ends
fibroblasts
what is the function of fibroblasts?
produce fibers and ground substance of the extracellular matrix
fat cells with a single large lipid droplet; cellular components pushed to one side
adipocytes
what is the function of adipocytes?
store lipid reserves
large cells derived from monocytes in the blood; reside in the extracellular matrix after leaving the blood
fixed macrophages
what is the function of fixed macrophages?
phagocytize foreign materials
stellate or spindle-shaped embryonic stem stells
mesenchymal cells
what is the function of mesenchymal cells?
divide in response to injury to produce new connective tissue cells
repair damaged extra-cellular matrix; active in immune response
wandering cells
small cells with a granule-filled cytoplasm
mast cells
what is the function of mast cells?
release histamine and heparin to stimulate local inflammation
small cells with a distinct nucleus derived from activated B-lymphocytes
plasma cells
what is the function of plasma cells?
form antibodies that bind to foreign substances, bacteria, viruses
mobile phagocytic cells formed from monocytes of the blood
free macrophages
what is the function of free macrophages?
phagocytize foreign materials
white blood cells that enter connective tissue
other leukocytes
what is the function of other leukocytes?
attack foreign materials (lymphocytes) or directly combat bacteria (neutrophils)
relatively fewer cells and fibers than in dense connective tissue; fibers are loosely arranged; ground substance=thick, syrupy, gooey, semi-fluid
loose tissues
contains multiple types of protein fibers scattered throughout; collagen, elastin, reticular
areolar
what is the function of areolar tissue?
packs around and binds organs
where are areolar tissues located?
surrounding nerves, vessels; subcutaneous layer
layer between skin and underlying muscle
subcutaneous layer
consists mostly of fat cells (adipocytes) with very little or no ground substance or protein fibers
adipose
what is the function of adipose tissue?
protects; stores fat; insulates; used for energy storage
where are adipose tissues located?
used as a cushioning material around organs; subcutaneous layer; kidney/other organs
most superficial layer of epidermis; 20-30 layers of dead, flattened, anueleate, keratin-filled keratinocytes
stratum corneum
2-3 layers of anucleate, dead keratinocytes; seen only in thick skin
stratum lucindum
3-5 layers of keratinocytes with distinct granules in the cytoplasm: keratinization begins in this layer
stratum granulosum
several layers of keratinocytes attached to neighbors by desmosomes; epidermal dendritic cells present
stratum spinosum
deepest, single layer of cuboidal to low columnar keratinocytes in contact with the basement membrane; mitosis occurs here; also contains melanocytes and tactile cells
stratum basale
superficial layer of the dermis that is in contact with epidermis; composed of areolar connective tissue; forms dermal papillae
papillary layer
deeper layer of the dermis; dense irregular connective tissue surrounding blood vessels, hair follicles, nerves, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands
reticular layer
not part of the integument; deep to dermis; composed of areolar connective tissue and adipose connective tissue
subcutaneous layer
what part of the epidermis are nails, hair, and exocrine glands derived from?
epithelium
scalelike modifications of the stratum corneum layer of the epidermis
nails
the whitish semi lunar area of the proximal end of the nail body
lunula
folds of skin that overlap the nail
nail folds
a narrow band of epidermis extending from the margin of the nail wall onto the nail body
eponychium (cuticle)
a region of thickened stratum corneum over which the free nail edge projects
hyponychium
what are the three kinds of hair we produce?
lanugo, vellus, and terminal hair
a fine, unpigmented, downy hair that first appears on the fetus in the second trimester of development
lanugo hair
fine, unpigmented or lightly pigmented
vellus hair
coarse, pigmented, and longer
terminal hair
consists of epithelial cells and is a swelling at the base where the hair originates in the dermis; consists of living epithelial cells
hair bulb
composed of a small amount of connective tissue containing tiny blood vessels and nerves
hair papillia
portion of the hair deep to the skin surface; dead epithelial cells
root
portion of the hair that extends beyond the skin’s surface; dead epithelial cells
shaft
not found in all hair types; a remnant of the soft core of the matrix
medulla
an oblique tube that surrounds the root hair
hair follicle
extends from the dermal papillae to the mid-region of the hair follicles are twin ribbons of smooth muscle
arrector pili muscles
the active phase of growth where living cells of the hair bulb are rapidly growing, dividing, and transforming into hair; 18 months- 7 years
anagen phase
a brief regression period where cell division ceases; 3-4 weeks
catagen phase
the resting phase and is usually the phase where hair is shed; 3-4 months
telogen phase
hair is white, skin is pale, irises of eyes are pink; caused by lack of melanin production
albinism
skin appears golden-brown, copper, or bronze in color; caused by glucocorticoid deficiency in the adrenal cortex; Addison disease
bronzing
skin appears bluish as a result of oxygen deficiency in circulating blood; caused by airway obstruction, emphysema, or respiratory arrest
cyanosis
skin appears abnormally red; caused by exercise, sunburn, excess heat, or emotions resulting in increased blood flow in dilated blood vessels in the dermis
erythema
a bruise is observable through the skin; caused by trauma; also may be indicative of hemophilia or a nutritional or metabolic disorder
hematoma
skin and sclera appear yellowish; caused by elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood; often occurs when normal liver function is disrupted
jaundice
skin appears ashen, pale due to white collagen fibers housed within the dermis; caused by decreased blood flow to the skin; occurs as a result of low blood pressure, cold temperature, emotional stress, severe anemia, or circulatory shock
pallor
what are the functions of the skin?
protection, prevention of water loss and gain, temperature regulation, metabolic regulation, immune defense, sensory reception, and secretion
what are the functions of cartilage?
supporting tissues, provides a gliding surface at articulations, and provides a model for the formation of most bones in the body
what are the functions of bone?
support and protection and movement
located in spongy bone; contains stem cells that form all blood cells and platelets; in children located in the spongy bone and medullary cavity; in adults located in axial skeleton, hip bones, and proximal ends of humerus and femur
red bone marrow
degenerate red bone marrow transformed into fatty tissue
yellow bone marrow
produce viscous, complex secretion: secretion influenced by hormones; located in axillary, anal, areolar, and pubic regions
apocrine sweat glands
produce nonviscous, watery secretion; controlled by nervous system; provide some antibacterial protection; function in thermoregulation and excretion; flush surface of epidermis; distributed throughout body, except external genitalia, nipples, and lips; especially prevalent on palms, soles, and forehead
merocrine sweat glands
produce lipid material called sebum, which coats epidermis and shaft of hair; provide lubrication and antibacterial activity; associated with hair follicles
sebaceous glands
cerumen; external acoustic meatus
ceruminous glands
