Lecture 8- Ageing & Adulthood: Development across the lifespan Flashcards
What is considered adulthood in the West?
It is generally agreed that young people enter adulthood between the ages of 18 and 20
What is ‘emerging adulthood’?
The growing trend in the West for young people delaying entry into the ‘adult world’.
This refers to 18-25 year olds, and is characterised by exploration and experimentation with identity, lifestyle, and career (Arnett, 2006).
(Usually) able to be self-focused due to few duties or commitments to others
How do people transition to young adults?
Most emerging adults do not see themselves as ‘fully fledged adults’, but
they do not feel like adolescents either.
The move from adolescence to adulthood is marked by continuity for most
For some though, the transition is less straightforward, and the increased
responsibility and independence proves difficult to cope with
The timing and sequencing of traditional experiences that represent the
process of becoming an adult are more flexible in the twenty-first century.
Result of economic and social changes, as well as government policy change
What is adulthood?
For many years middle adulthood was considered to start at the age of 40.
life expectancy keeps increasing - 40 is no longer the ‘midpoint’ of life.
Identifying ‘middle age’ in social and psychological terms is becoming harder.
Not as well studied as other periods of the lifespan.
Older adulthood usually considered as beginning at the age of 65.
But attitudes on this are shifting too due to the ageing population
What are the methodologies for lifespan research?
Cross-sectional (between groups)
Longitudinal (within differences)
what is cross sectional?
(and its strengths/lims)
- Takes a ‘snapshot’ at a single point in time.
- Compares between individuals of different ages.
LIM: Age’s causality is more difficult to ascertain.
STRENGTH: No issues with ‘drop-outs’ and is comparatively cheap.
What is longitudinal? (and its strengths/lims)
- Follows individuals over a series of time points.
- Compares different times within an individual’s life.
STRENGTH: Gives a more valid indication of ‘change due to age’.
LIM: but more costly, more vulnerable to ‘drop-outs’.
- Need to be mindful that ‘cohort effects’ (variations over time, in one or more characteristics, among groups of individuals defined by some shared experience) will complicate interpretation of simple ‘age effects’.
What is neuro biology?
Learning occurs through
neuroplasticity.
Neuroplasticity is:
“The ability of the brain to form and reorganise synaptic connections,
especially in response to learning or experience or following injury”.
(Fuchs & Flugge, 2014)
The rate (velocity) of
neurodevelopment tends to be greatest during
infancy.
Grey matter volume
peaks in early childhood
White matter a little
later.
But brain mass isn’t everything if we think of development as ‘learning’.
The brain retains a tremendous capacity for this well after ‘peak brain
mass’
What is neuro biology (2)?
The rate (velocity) of neurodevelopment tends to be greatest during infancy.
Grey matter volume peaks in early childhood. White matter a little later.
But brain mass isn’t everything if we think of development as ‘learning’.
The brain retains a tremendous capacity for this well after ‘peak brain
mass’
How does cognition change with development and age?
as we age. our cognition declines
this is explained biologically: there is a natural reductions in brain mass
we can compensate for this through retaining neuroplasticity (e.g. keep using our brains eg learn a new language)
Cognitive abilities by age
(Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004)
Some cognitive abilities hold up much
better than others
(slide 14)
Cognitive abilities by age- what are the limitations?
studies have been cross-sectional in design, and so has
been suggested that the age differences are actually caused by a
cohort effect.
In other words, brought about because the older adults generally had
less formal schooling than most younger adults today.
Longitudinal studies have found that cognitive skills either stay stable
or even improve with age! But could this result be due to practice
effects? In other words, due to learning and experience?
SLIDE 16 ????
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
earlier memories preserve for longer as
hippocampus affected first.
Is irreversible.
Gradual decline in skills, gradual deterioration in memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning. Affects mostly over 65s.
What is Vascular dementia?
memory loss may or may not be a significant symptom and can be less systematic. Depends on where in the brain
blood flow is most reduced
What is fluid intelligence?
Is global capacity to reason, learn new things, and think abstractly and solve
problems.
Shows earlier and steeper decline.
What is Crystalised intelligence?
Based on facts, prior learning, and experiences.
Increases with age and is relatively stable into old age
SLIDE 19 (Voelkle &
Lindenberger, 2014).
What did Ritchie et al., 2013 research say?
In individuals over 70 years of age you can predict IQ scores from the number of years they spent in education.
But still weaker relationships with processing speed
SLIDE 21
What are different views on ‘successful ageing’?
Disengagement theory
Activity theory
Continuity theory
What is the disengagement theory?
Gradual retreat and withdrawal from activities.
What is the activity theory?
Maintaining curiosity and interests in activities late into adulthood.
What is the continuity theory?
Continue to use cognitive and physical abilities as much as possible.
Adapting to keep ‘using’ or ‘lose’ certain activities. Practice has a protective
role for cognitive functioning.
What are factors for ‘successful ageing’?
Decline is less likely in the absence of cardiovascular and other chronic
diseases (Wendell et al., 2009).
Higher socioeconomic status is linked to slower decline ( Fotenos et al.,
2008).
Being involved in a complex and intellectually stimulating environment
promotes good functioning (Valenzuela, Breakspear, & Sachdev, 2007).
Maintaining an active lifestyle can help slow cognitive decline (Richards,
Hardy, & Wadsworth, 2003).
Development as learning: What is a Constructivist perspective?
Learning to adapt across the lifespan is something adults do a lot.
We continue to adapt to our environment and it’s changing demands.
What are 5 assumptions of Andragogy?
- Self-concept (very self-directed and autonomous).
- Experience (will draw heavily on past experiences).
- Readiness to learn (trying to develop within a certain role/profession).
- Orientation to learning (‘just in time’ learning, to solve current
problems). - Motivation to learn (intrinsic).
Andragogy is not pedagogy?
What are 4 implications of andragogy?
- Involve learners in planning and evaluation.
- Experiences (including mistakes) are basis for learning activities.
- Learning activities are of immediate relevance and use.
- Activities are problem-based.
Overall: It is easy to assume that ageing is all about decline.
But lifespan development is multi-directional
