Lecture 8 Flashcards
The Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974 timeline
Timeline:
20:11 🡪 Code worded warning sent to Birmingham Post newspaper
20:17 🡪 Detonation in Mulberry Bush
20:27 🡪 Detonation in Tavern in the Town
21:15 🡪 Third bomb discovered
The Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974 fatalities
During the PIRA campaign in 1974 two bombs were detonated in Birmingham city centre
- Mulberry Bush 🡪 10 fatalities
- The Tavern in the Town 🡪 11 fatalities
- Third unexploded bomb in Barclays bank
- IRA would send a coded message to a major outlet ahead of time to give people a warning to evacuate the area to reduce harm to people
- In this case there wasn’t time for people to evacuate
What is a soft target?
Non military target, targeting normal everyday people
Facts of the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974
- The first major attack on a ‘soft target’ in UK mainland
- This led to an explosion of anti-Irish xenophobic sentiment
(Ostracism, arson attacks, airport staff refusing to process Ireland-bound flights) - Wave of revenge attacks by loyalist terrorist groups in NI (mostly random shootings)
- IRA initially denied responsibility
- Immediate demand for the arrest of the perpetrators
- Home Secretary introduced the first Prevention of Terrorism Act
(Seven days detention and deportation to Ireland (N. or Rep.) for suspected terrorists)
Arrests of the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974
Immediate arrests and non-forensic evidence
- Six men detained after taking a train from Birmingham to Heysham (Lancashire coast) about to board a ship to Northern Ireland
- The men were friends of James McDade (IRA bomber who had died in an explosion on 14th November)
- They agreed to undergo forensic testing to ‘rule them out’ of the bombing
What is frangex?
- Mixed explosive
- Type of gelignite found in quarries in Republic of Ireland
What were the Frangex bombs composed of in the Birmingham incident?
- 20-50% colloidon cotton (nitrocellulose dissolved in alcohol/ether) mixed with nitroglycerin
- 30-40% saltpetre (KNO3)
- < 15% wood pulp stabilizer (same role as diatomaceous earth)
How was the composition/construction of the bombs determined in the Birmingham Pub Bombings 1974?
- The unexploded ‘Barclays bomb’ was key in determining the composition/construction
- They are easily identified without taggants
- Each bomb was approximately 15 kg which caused a huge amount of damage
- As they found the bomb they knew they were looking for the presence of nitroglycerin on the suspects
What is colloidon cotton?
- Nitrocellulose dissolved in alcohol/ether mixed with nitroglycerin
- Nitrocellulose is easier to set off and nitroglycerine is more powerful explosive
What is the purpose of wood pulp stabilizer in frangex?
Wood acts as internal sacrificial barrier - the same as the diatomaceous earth in dynamite
What modern analytical technique could be used to detect the presence of nitroglycerin?
- GC-TEA as it looks specifically for nitro-containing compounds
- It is very sensitive so it can look for trace amounts
What can HPLC be used for?
It can be used to separate the components
How does the Griess test?
- This is a specific chemical test to look for NO2 ions which are generated from explosive materials that contain nitro groups
- The Griess reagent contains two components: sulfonamide + sulfuric acid + something else
- Sulfonamide reacts in the presence of some acid (usually sulfuric acid) and that reacts with the nitride ions. Specifically, to create the N2+. These subsequently react with other reagents and form a compound which gives a clear pink colour.
- Gives us a clear colour change which can be performed on site
- This method was used heavily, particularly for nitroglycerine
What test did the forensic analysts use in the Birmingham bombing?
The Griess test
What is the Griess test is usually paired with?
The Griess test was often paired with thin layer chromatography test for nitroglycerin (very low tech)
Whats the problem with TLC?
- TLC analysis is very imprecise and does not give reliable quantitative results
- I can only provide extra information
- It involves comparing the spots to see if they match
What were the conclusions of the court for the Birmingham 6?
- The ‘Birmingham Six’ were convicted based on evidence presented by Dr Frank Skuse from the North West Forensic Laboratory 🡪 they were jailed for life
- He claimed there was a 99% chance that two of the men had nitroglycerin residue on their hands
Skuse claimed he used such a low concentration solution that would only test positive if the appellants’ hands had been “dripping with nitroglycerine” - The control experiment carried out was without NaOH (to exclude ‘other’ nitrite sources)
What are the issues with the conclusions relating to the Birmingham six?
- There was no quantitative way of determining that number
- The controlled test for the Griess test is to repeat it without NaOH so you wouldn’t get the positive colour change from the background or interfere with things
- Skuse claimed that his NaOH solution was so weak the bombers would have had to have 5 grams of nitroglycerin on their hands to test positive. This is implausible considering how shock-sensitive nitroglycerine is.
What are the criticisms of Dr Skuse’s evidence?
- The TLC result was negative for nitroglycerine
- If their hands were dropping the results should have been positive
- GC-MS was eventually used by another analyst and there was a negative result
- The Dr didn’t use the GC-MS even though he could have
- The defence forensic expert (Dr Black) raised their concerns
- Judge told the jury to focus on the expertise of Skuse and ignore Dr Black
What potentially caused the positive result of the Birmingham six?
- Nitrocellulose (gun cotton) is present in playing cards and reacts similarly with NaOH
- The Birmingham six were playing cards on the train before being arrested
- This possible explanation was publicised by a TV program on Granada (now ITV) in 1985 and Skuse retired three days later.
What improvements have occurred since 1974?
- The sensitivity and specificity of the test
- Clean rooms 🡪 HEPA filters and testing conditions for trace analysis
- Better recovery of evidence 🡪 less chance contamination
- Additional independent testing
- Multiple tests (even for GC we need three columns)
- Test results from different labs have to match to present results confidently
- Less “argument from authority” with regard to expert witnesses
- A more standardised approach to analytical evidence presentation in court
- A greater body of case law related to explosives
What appeals were carried out for the Birmingham six?
- There were multiple appeals against the conviction of the Birmingham Six
- Initially referred for appeal in 1988 which was rejected
- Successful appeal in 1991 where the relative value of GC-MS ‘gold standard’ testing versus a Griess test (preliminary screening only) was acknowledged
- Several non-forensic issues (e.g. confessions, police brutality) also accounted for
- Each of the Birmingham six was awarded around £1,000,000 compensation
What happened to the real Birmingham pub bombers?
- Nobody was charged after the exoneration of the Birmingham Six due to the general amnesty under the Good Friday agreement (1998)
- Tacit agreement on both sides to not reopen the case
- Speculation that Michael murry was the actual mastermind
What were the reverberations from the Birmingham six?
- St. Patrick’s Day celebrations only resumed in Birmingham in 1983
- Michael Murray returned to Ireland campaigned against the peace process and IRA arms decommissioning and died in 1999
- The Birmingham Six founded the Miscarriages of Justice Organisation
- An unnamed 65 year old man was arrested on 18 November 2020 in connection with the bombings under the Terrorism Act 2000 but released after questioning
