Lecture 7-Ethics and Gender

Question 1

What are ethics?

Answer 1

is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with human conduct, more specifically the behaviour of individuals in society. Ethics can be viewed as a set of principles which govern our behaviour with respect to what is morally good or bad and morally right and wrong.

Question 2

Purpose of ethics

Answer 2

seek to determine the best course of action when there are alternative options and provides a reason (not gut feeling; not based on religion, law, social conventions). Each discipline develops its own standard of conduct- a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues.

Question 3

Examples of ethics

Answer 3

For example, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles

Question 4

What are morals

Answer 4

specific principles, beliefs and behaviours concerning right and wrong. One’s morals are judged to be good or bad through systematic ethical analysis.

Question 5

Difference between morals and ethics

Answer 5

ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct while morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong.

Question 6

Historical overview on ethics

Answer 6

Ancient Greece was the birthplace of western philosophical ethics as the known history of pure ethics or ethical theories begin with ancient Greek philosophers (Sophists, Socrates, Socratic schools, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Stoics) in the period from the eighth century BC to the end of antiquity (ca. fifth century AD). Greek philosophy is important not just as a forerunner of modern versions of virtue ethics but also because of its pioneering work on applied or practical ethics. The rise of Christian philosophy, out of a fusion of Greco-Roman thought with Judaism and elements of other Middle Eastern religions, produced a new era in the history of ethics. The medieval period contains an extraordinarily rich variety of approaches to ethics. Until the end of the twelfth century, much of moral philosophy was developed in the context of theological debates within the intellectual tradition of Western Christianity. Monks and teachers in cathedral schools developed the thought of the earlier Christian Fathers, which was heavily influenced by the thinking of some Greek philosophers.

Question 7

Criticism and comparison

Answer 7

methods of ethics especially modern

Question 8

Who created modern ethical theory?

Answer 8

Hobbes

Question 9

Kantian ethics/Deontological ethical theory

Answer 9

developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that is based on the notion that: “It is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good will.”

Question 10

Utilitarianism,

Answer 10

an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes.

Question 11

Comte, Darwin, and finally Spencer followed by Green

Answer 11

who set the evolution concept into physical sciences as well as the development of ethics

Question 12

More on the atom bomb

Answer 12

Szilard also requested that there be permanent contact between the United States administration and the group of scientists working on the chain reactions, and that funds be provided for experimental work. However, the commitment to build the bomb was not the scientists’ decision, but President Roosevelt’s. The order to drop the bomb came from yet another individual, President Truman.

Here we have a chain of events in which each link in the chain knew how the science could be used and what it would do. The fact that the ultimate decision and responsibility was that of President Truman is not at issue. However, the contributions of scientists to that decision cannot be ignored. Building the bomb was a gigantic engineering feat, but there was an enormous gap between the scientific knowledge and developing the technology that used the knowledge.

What we can agree on is that: 1. Scientists are aware of how their work can be used.
2. There is no clear relation between scientific ideas and their implementation, that is, between science and technology.
3.Implementing applications of science can be considered a social and/or political decision, for which science is not responsible. Perhaps efforts to apportion responsibility are misguided. What we can agree on is that when scientists provide knowledge, they are obliged to report the implications of such knowledge, not only to an inner circle, but to the public at large.

Question 13

What are research ethics?

Answer 13

involves the application of ethical principles in conducting research. It is most developed as a concept in medical research but in some form, it is essential to all research especially where human subjects are involved.

Question 14

Nuremberg Code 1948

Answer 14

Throughout the ages – and especially after the scientific revolution in the 17th century – the behaviour of researchers has been subject to some form of regulation. Many consider the Second World War as the most important landmark. This is mainly due to the reckoning with the scientific, medical experiments conducted on prisoners of war in the concentration camps. This research provided important results but was based on causing injury or death to the people who participated in it. Other key events during the Second World War also helped raise awareness of the consequences of participation in research. One prime example is the Manhattan project, a large-scale research project to produce atomic bombs. Altogether 23 doctors were brought to justice in Nuremberg in 1947 for having conducted medical research on people in the concentration camps. As a direct response to the terminal experiments that had been undertaken, the verdict defined an ethical code - The Nuremberg Code 1948 consisting of ten rules intended to prevent the same abuse from happening again. Since then there have been several instances of unethical research for example the Thalidomide tragedy in 1957 and the syphilis studies. It is now mandatory for scientists to follow a code of ethics in conducting experiments and further, to get ethical clearance from an established Research Ethics committee.

Question 15

FOUR fundamental principles,

Answer 15

autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice.

Question 16

Autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence and justice in expansion

Answer 16

1. The Principle of Respect for Autonomy Respect for persons incorporates at least two other fundamental ethical principles, namely: ❖ autonomy, which is Latin for “self-rule”, requires that those who are capable of deliberation about their personal goals should be treated with respect for their capacity for self-determination; and ❖ protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy, which requires that those who are dependent or vulnerable be afforded security against harm or abuse.
2. The Principle of Beneficence is the ethical obligation to maximize possible benefits and to minimize possible harms and wrongs.
3. The Principle of Non-maleficence (“Do no harm”) holds a central position in the tradition of medical ethics, and guards against avoidable harm to research subjects.
4. The Principle of Justice requires that cases considered to be alike be treated alike, and that cases considered to be different be treated in ways that acknowledge the difference.

Question 17

History of eugenics pt 1

Answer 17

In 1883, Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton, coined the word eugenics. It came from the Greek “good in birth” or “noble in heredity”. Eugenics was defined as the science of improving the human stock by giving “the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable”. In other words, humans could be improved by scientific methods, in the same way that plant breeders improve their stock. Galton thought it would be “quite practicable to produce a highly gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations”.

The scientific assumptions behind this are that most human attributes are inherited; the possible effects of socialisation are ignored. Galton’s views were derived from ideas about natural selection and evolution. An American, Charles Davenport, was particularly influenced by the idea of eugenics. In 1904 he persuaded the Carnegie Foundation to set up the Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories for the study of human evolution. From his studies on human pedigrees, Davenport came to believe that certain races were feeble-minded. Negroes were biologically inferior, Poles were perceived of as independent and self-reliant, though clannish; Italians tended to crimes of personal violence. (On what type of reasoning do you think this was based? See Module 1, Unit 2.) He expected the American population to become through immigration, “darker in pigmentation, smaller in stature, more mercurial… more given to crimes of larceny, kidnapping, assault, murder, rape and sex-immorality.”

His aim was to promote negative eugenics – preventing proliferation of the bad. To this end he favoured a selective immigration policy to prevent any further contamination of the “germ-plasm” (the genetic information transmitted from parents to offspring). To deal with the “badness” within the present population, he tried to prevent reproduction of those whom he considered genetically defective.

Question 18

History of eugenics pt 2

Answer 18

Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbour, used prison and hospital data to lobby at the state level for the passage of eugenic sterilization laws which would allow individuals in state institutions to be forcibly sterilized if they were judged to be genetically defective. Over 35 states passed and used such laws. By the 1960s, when most of these laws were being repealed more than 60,000 people had been sterilized for eugenic purposes (Allen, 2001).

Although in the 1930s many biologists had begun to react against many of the claims for eugenics, it was too late. The ideas had spread to Europe and in Germany the National Socialists used Laughlin’s model as one of the bases for their sterilization law. This law led directly to many atrocities by doctors and others in the concentration camps. More than 400,000 people were sterilized for perceived genetic defects (Allen, 2001). An increasing number of bioethicists distinguish between “bad eugenics” and “good eugenics”. The former is totalitarian and involuntary; the latter is individual and discretionary. Some strongly support the idea of “embryo editing” and feel that this time around, eugenics could be a force for good. Also, we should also recognize that there is a crucial difference between the old eugenics and the new modern version. Rather than demonizing “unfit” people and working to sterilize them, modern eugenics regards their inherited disabilities as treatable medical conditions and seeks to help them have healthy children.

Question 19

History of eugenics pt 3

Answer 19

Doctors may be regarded as technologists applying the science of human biology, rather than as scientists, therefore science is not to blame. However, we need to examine the responsibility of the scientists for the genetic theories that underlay the eugenics movement. It appears that these scientists did not consider the social implications of their conclusions, nor did they make them public.

Moreover, the conclusions on which they based their theories seem to have been driven by what they saw as desirable social outcomes. The public was never informed about the absence of reliable evidence to support these conclusions. Many are of the view that scientists are obliged to examine the social implications of their work. This may be debatable. What is clear is that they need not decide how or if it should be used but make clear the extent to which their observations and conclusions can be reliably put into practice. This is especially important in sensitive social areas, when they should be clear to the point of being overcautious. The responsibility of a vigilant public is to be as informed as possible, to demand the evidence and evaluate it critically. Allen (2001) issues a warning about the present tendency to use advances in biotechnology to portray genetics as the new “magic bullet” of biomedical science which will solve many social problems.

He considers it unlikely, that we will see a return to sterilization proposals. However, the requirement of anti-fertilization medication for continuation of welfare benefits in the United States, and tough immigration sentiments in that country and in Europe, remind us that that we are not entirely free of the prejudices of earlier generations

Question 20

Science for profit-pt 1

Answer 20

There is another dimension to the debate on eugenics. In the highly competitive world in which we live there is no doubt that certain characteristics provide those who have them with distinct advantages. On completion of the Human Genome Project it may not be too long before parents-to-be can decide what careers they would chose for their offspring and, in light of that, what characteristics each child will need to fulfil their parents’ dreams for their success. It may be difficult to resist the temptation to use the methods now touted for gene therapy to alter the genotypes of embryos to produce a custom- designed child.

Who knows to what excesses this could lead? We may yet see a return to eugenics but this time it would be positive eugenics by personal choice rather than the imposition of discriminatory laws. These decisions could become a major issue because the procedures involved would only be affordable by the very rich and in the already developed world. This may yet become another way in which the achievements of science separate rather than reduce the divide between social groups or countries. The scenario described above may never happen. However, there are other important concerns that relate to the economics of science and technology. As noted earlier, most scientific research is being funded or conducted by agencies with a commercial interest in the applications of what they underwrite. Two problems arise because of this. Firstly, the objectives of scientific research and technological development are not necessarily directed to areas that are most in need or of greatest scientific interest. Instead, they are directed to those areas that will yield the greatest profit. An outstanding example is in the area of medicine where certain disorders and potential cures are over researched because the results can be successfully marketed. Diseases that are common in the Third World and kill millions every year receive much less attention and funding.

Question 21

Science for profit pt 2

Answer 21

The second concern arises from the first but is more general in scope. Even when technology and science produce research findings that are in the interest of humanity in general, the benefits may not reach the potential beneficiaries because they cannot afford them. A recent example makes the point. Drugs that can alleviate the symptoms of AIDS or prevent it from developing are too expensive for the countries that need them most. It took determined political action, threats to ignore patents, and public censure to convince drug companies to bring the prices to those nations within reach of their economies. 

Find out about the research mentioned Are there any solutions to these problems? We return to the starting point of our discussion and to related issues that have been reiterated throughout the course. Basic scientific knowledge should remain in the public domain. Within the Caribbean region citizens can support regional governments when they make budgetary allocations to provide funding and facilities for universities and other centres of research such as the Scientific Research Council in Jamaica, the Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI), and the Caribbean Epidemiological Centre (CAREC) in Trinidad.

We must also support local ventures, commercial or otherwise, that use research findings to cost. develop materials that can be made available to the public at reasonable Our governments can be urged to support international agreements that would allow access to scientific information and enforce already existing agreements that would assist less developed countries to share in the technology that would assist us in our development. In the absence of such efforts scientific and technological advancements will provide yet another criterion for dividing the rich and the poor within and between countries. Very importantly, we can only play our part if we make it our duty to remain informed about scientific events and the issues surrounding them.

Question 22

What is gender?

Answer 22

is a social construct. It refers to the social and cultural differences a society assigns to people based on their (biological) sex. A related concept, gender roles, refers to a society’s expectations of people’s behavior and attitudes based on whether they are females or males. Essentially it is reflective of the notions of masculinity and femininity. Gender roles and expectations are learned, they can change over time and they vary within and between cultures.

Question 23

What is sex?

Answer 23

is biologically determined and refers to the anatomical and other biological differences between females and males that are determined at the moment of conception and development in the womb and throughout childhood and adolescence.

Question 24

What does gender influence?

Answer 24

Gender beliefs and practices greatly influence several aspects of our lives, including language, dress, family structure, health, and educational and employment opportunities. We look briefly at certain aspects of two of these– gender and science, and gender and health.

Question 25

History between gender and science pt 1

Answer 25

Integral to the concept of gender is inequity with males having more power and greater social, economic and political influence. The issue of gender equality is major problem for society at all levels, local, regional and international. It is regarded as a fundamental human right and refers to the ability of both women and men to enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making. Since 1970 substantial progress has been made toward gender equality on employment and earnings as well as in women’s access to certain fields of study and professions. Despite these gains many challenges remain for example, achieving gender equality and women’s full and equal access and participation in science, technology and innovation continues to be a challenge for the international community and a core issue for the United Nations.

Question 26

History of science and gender pt 2

Answer 26

Biology (Science) was often used to justify gender and racial differences- “Our Biology is Our Destiny e.g. Craniometry and IQ tests sought to justify the inadequacy of the female brain to do science; threats to their reproductive role, argued that energy would be diverted to the brain with detrimental effects on the developing foetus. This was later morphed into the nurturing and caring of the family which was not compatible with doing science. Hence the argument for equal participation of females in science was a late entry in second wave feminism, characterized by the struggle to introduce women studies, (which was later incorporated the relational aspects and recognized the need to include the masculine perspective to become gender studies), in academia. Female scientists were insensitive to any discrimination based on their sex and furthermore they were not inclined to “betray” their own discipline.
Traditionally, the sciences, especially the physical sciences, have been male dominated. The problem is perhaps related to the prevailing heritage of patriarchy. Certainly, during much of the existence of modern science women were legally and explicitly excluded from most of its institutions. Although such legal barriers have now been dismantled, women remained under-represented in the area. The problem is general as well as Caribbean, and the socialization which reinforces males as being more scientifically inclined begins at birth.
Research done by Bailey and Leo-Rhynie (1994) pointed out that the education literature at the time contained many references to gender differences in relation to the pursuit of science. It was found that boys elected to do more courses in science, enjoyed science more and achieved at higher levels in science than girls did. This situation was also true of Jamaica up to about a decade ago. The picture has changed as more girls choose to do courses in science. However, the common perception that science subjects are more suited to boys than girls still persists and influences choice to a certain extent.

Other factors that emerged from the research were the greater uncertainty of girls about their ability to cope with the demands of studying science or mathematics. At that time fewer females seemed to be interested in careers in engineering and computer science

Question 27

Horizontal segregation

Answer 27

is demonstrated by the fact that, at a given academic level, one would find a higher percentage of women in the biological sciences than in areas such as physics and engineering. Even within a specialty such as engineering, there are fewer women in some areas.

Question 28

Vertical segregation

Answer 28

manifests itself in the fact that there are fewer women in top positions in the science departments of universities and in other scientific institutions.

Question 29

Gender and health

Answer 29

Many of the key health issues affected by gender considerations have to do with reproductive roles and practices. Men and women experience sexuality and reproductive health differently, in ways that are shaped, not only by their personal identities, but by cultural and class norms. Religion, politics, education, and economic conditions also contribute. There are several factors that have a negative impact on women’s health. These factors may cause them to neglect their own needs or, in some cases, be unaware of them altogether. In promoting reproductive health, the focus has been on satisfying the biological demands of women’s health care. However, this is not enough. Providing services such as good primary health care, provisions for safe motherhood and family planning services does not take into account the many factors that may prevent women from making full use of these services. Relationships with partners, mothers-in-law, religious authorities or others may prevent them from acquiring or using knowledge, or from practising contraceptive methods that offer protection against pregnancy and sexually trans- mitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.

Question 30

Gender and health pt 2

Answer 30

In addition, there are several social factors which may place women at a disadvantage in terms of taking control of their own reproductive health. Societal attitudes to infertility, non-mothers and older women, rape and violence in sexual relationships, male and female attitudes to sexual practices – for example, the refusal by some men to use condoms, all act as deterrents in this respect. In some 26 countries including parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia the practice of female genital mutilation still exists. Usually performed on very young females by older females because men want it so, it attests to the dominance of tradition over contemporary norms and scientific knowledge. There are other cultural patterns to be considered. Nutritional deficiencies tend to be higher in females in any given population, partly because it is more difficult to satisfy the nutritional requirements of females, but also because of the practice of giving the male the best of what is available, especially in terms of animal protein. (Until recently, the accepted pattern was to save the chicken leg or breast for the father; the mother claimed or learned to enjoy the bony pieces.)

When women work outside the home, occupational health research tends to examine the effect of mother’s work on her children, but not on herself. Nor is much attention given to the hazards she faces in the work she does in the home, since it is not quantified in terms of earnings. Women themselves stand in their own way, for example, by consistently putting children and partners and other demands on time and financial resources above concerns for their own health. Many women continue to show a preference for traditional practices, some of which are beneficial and cost little, but some of which can be harmful. Clearly social attitudes and cultural norms must be taken into account in addressing the needs of women with respect to health care.

Question 31

Spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS

Answer 31

Societal norms for both men and women contribute to this spread. Women are socialized to please men and will submit themselves to high-risk behaviour to do that. For example, where virginity is valued, anal sex may be practised, which may put them at risk for HIV. Then there is deliberate selection of young girls by older men. Many women are forced to have unsafe sex, within and without steady unions. Fear prevents the female partner from bringing up condom use. The male partner often interprets this as a sign of faithfulness. In any case, motherhood is valued, and the condom prevents conception. In some societies, infertility is grounds for divorce. Women in stable relationships are at risk due to their husbands or partners having multiple partners

One 1993 survey in Barbados found that men between 25 and 34 years had an average of 5 partners, whereas the women had one (Woman’s Health Journal, 2–3/94, p. 104). There is also the stigma attached to homosexuality, so that homosexual men are more likely to conceal their homosexual activity by practising bisexuality. It is accepted also, that men, more than women, use alcohol and other substances that may lead them into unsafe or casual and risky sex.

Answer 32

Many people argue that a woman’s right to self-determination, that is, to control her own body, gives her the right to decide whether or not an unwanted pregnancy should be terminated. If she wants an abortion, and the father of the child does not agree, the fact that the foetus is a part of her body, and not of his, gives her right precedence. Others argue that the developing foetus is a product of both parents and the decision to terminate a pregnancy must be mutual. There is also disagreement as to whether the foetus has the right to life or not. This is a debate that will not be resolved as claims one way or the other are mostly based on dogma making it difficult to analyse the issues rationally (Macklin, 1991). Macklin is also of the view that without safe abortion services in case of contraceptive failure for whatever reason, a family planning programme is not complete.
With too many children, both mother and children are at risk. Germain (1987) points out that an estimated 200,000 or more women in the Third World die needlessly each year of improperly performed abortions (p. 1). She also believes that good reproductive health enables women
to regulate fertility by conceiving when desired, terminating unwanted pregnancies, and going to term with those wanted; 
remain free of the disease, fear, disability, and death associated with reproduction and sexuality; 
bear and raise healthy children

Question 33

Summary

Answer 33

1. Science and accountability: In this section we questioned the responsibilities and obligations of scientists to society. Two issues the dropping of the atom bomb and the history of eugenics exemplified the importance of ethical research and making scientific findings and the implications of those findings’ public. It is argued that scientists do have the responsibility for ensuring that the public knows what is taking place and what the possible results of their findings might be.
   2.The gender issue: We saw that traditionally science and science based careers were until very recently male dominated. We noted the changing pattern in the Caribbean and the need to do more to change perceptions that science and technology are masculine areas.
   3.Gender and health: Health care for women tends to focus on the biological aspects of health care without taking into account the social factors that limit access to what is available. These include women’s relationships with their partners and other family members, religious attitudes, and societal attitudes to matters such as infertility. Women consistently put the welfare of other family members ahead of their own health needs as well as other demands on their time and financial resources.
2. Spread of STDs: It was noted that women become involved in risky sexual behaviours to please men or out of fear and that society is more accepting of men having multiple partners. Both these factors contribute to the spread of these diseases. The stigma against homosexuality is also a contributing factor as bisexuality may be used as a cover.
3. Termination of unwanted pregnancies: Both sides of the debate on abortion rights were mentioned i.e., women have the right to decide, as the foetus is part of their bodies; the foetus is the product of two individuals so the choice should be mutual. Unwanted pregnancies are problematic; they encourage improperly performed abortions that put the mother’s life at risk, but having too many children is burdensome, affecting both mother and children.

Question 34

Wrap up-why should we care?

Answer 34

1.The development and use of information and communications technology, (see Module 2, Unit 5), provides an excel- lent example of the ways in which we have become part of a global community. We have access to more information about health and disease, the environmental impact of industry and the impact of climate change on the Caribbean. We can see for ourselves the effects of mismanaging global resources and how this can affect our region. Can we afford to have others make important choices for us, especially choices that might affect our very existence on the planet? 
2. No one expects any one person to be fully informed about all of the key issues affecting the economic and social devel- opment of a country. Should we therefore leave the decision- making about issues of scientific and technological importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is raised again in Unit 4 of this Module.)
3.A comfortable daily existence for all our citizens is an ideal we would like to see achieved. Each citizen has a right to: - a continuous, clean water supply - an effective sewage collection and treatment system - a continuous and reliable power supply - some reliable form of transport, whether private or public - a supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap - access to a good health system To what extent are these objectives really separate from the larger issues discussed in this course?
4. Our governments often enter into international agreements that may determine their ability to provide us with basic necessities. International events and concerns can have a direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore? what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before considering this question you might like to list all the ways you can think of that September 11 affected your country)

Question 35

Wrap up-why should we care? pt 2

Answer 35

5.If you decide that you do care about some of these issues, perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can become better informed about them (e.g., through the Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should consider how you might contribute to debate on improving provisions for at least one of the issues from the list above.

6.Many people would argue that, given recent developments in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to provide an education through which people may become “scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a nation can ensure that its future decision-making is as well informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too idealistic a goal?
7. Finally, do you consider yourself to be more scientifically literate and aware than you were when you started this course? We hope you can answer affirmatively.