Lecture 7-Ethics and Gender Flashcards

Question

History between gender and science pt 1

Answer 1

Integral to the concept of gender is inequity with males having more power and greater social, economic and political influence. The issue of gender equality is major problem for society at all levels, local, regional and international. It is regarded as a fundamental human right and refers to the ability of both women and men to enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making. Since 1970 substantial progress has been made toward gender equality on employment and earnings as well as in women's access to certain fields of study and professions. Despite these gains many challenges remain for example, achieving gender equality and women’s full and equal access and participation in science, technology and innovation continues to be a challenge for the international community and a core issue for the United Nations.

Answer 2

Biology (Science) was often used to justify gender and racial differences- “Our Biology is Our Destiny e.g. Craniometry and IQ tests sought to justify the inadequacy of the female brain to do science; threats to their reproductive role, argued that energy would be diverted to the brain with detrimental effects on the developing foetus. This was later morphed into the nurturing and caring of the family which was not compatible with doing science. Hence the argument for equal participation of females in science was a late entry in second wave feminism, characterized by the struggle to introduce women studies, (which was later incorporated the relational aspects and recognized the need to include the masculine perspective to become gender studies), in academia. Female scientists were insensitive to any discrimination based on their sex and furthermore they were not inclined to “betray” their own discipline. Traditionally, the sciences, especially the physical sciences, have been male dominated. The problem is perhaps related to the prevailing heritage of patriarchy. Certainly, during much of the existence of modern science women were legally and explicitly excluded from most of its institutions. Although such legal barriers have now been dismantled, women remained under-represented in the area. The problem is general as well as Caribbean, and the socialization which reinforces males as being more scientifically inclined begins at birth. Research done by Bailey and Leo-Rhynie (1994) pointed out that the education literature at the time contained many references to gender differences in relation to the pursuit of science. It was found that boys elected to do more courses in science, enjoyed science more and achieved at higher levels in science than girls did. This situation was also true of Jamaica up to about a decade ago. The picture has changed as more girls choose to do courses in science. However, the common perception that science subjects are more suited to boys than girls still persists and influences choice to a certain extent. Other factors that emerged from the research were the greater uncertainty of girls about their ability to cope with the demands of studying science or mathematics. At that time fewer females seemed to be interested in careers in engineering and computer science

Answer 3

is demonstrated by the fact that, at a given academic level, one would find a higher percentage of women in the biological sciences than in areas such as physics and engineering. Even within a specialty such as engineering, there are fewer women in some areas.

Answer 4

manifests itself in the fact that there are fewer women in top positions in the science departments of universities and in other scientific institutions.

Answer 5

Many of the key health issues affected by gender considerations have to do with reproductive roles and practices. Men and women experience sexuality and reproductive health differently, in ways that are shaped, not only by their personal identities, but by cultural and class norms. Religion, politics, education, and economic conditions also contribute. There are several factors that have a negative impact on women’s health. These factors may cause them to neglect their own needs or, in some cases, be unaware of them altogether. In promoting reproductive health, the focus has been on satisfying the biological demands of women’s health care. However, this is not enough. Providing services such as good primary health care, provisions for safe motherhood and family planning services does not take into account the many factors that may prevent women from making full use of these services. Relationships with partners, mothers-in-law, religious authorities or others may prevent them from acquiring or using knowledge, or from practising contraceptive methods that offer protection against pregnancy and sexually trans- mitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.

Answer 6

In addition, there are several social factors which may place women at a disadvantage in terms of taking control of their own reproductive health. Societal attitudes to infertility, non-mothers and older women, rape and violence in sexual relationships, male and female attitudes to sexual practices – for example, the refusal by some men to use condoms, all act as deterrents in this respect. In some 26 countries including parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia the practice of female genital mutilation still exists. Usually performed on very young females by older females because men want it so, it attests to the dominance of tradition over contemporary norms and scientific knowledge. There are other cultural patterns to be considered. Nutritional deficiencies tend to be higher in females in any given population, partly because it is more difficult to satisfy the nutritional requirements of females, but also because of the practice of giving the male the best of what is available, especially in terms of animal protein. (Until recently, the accepted pattern was to save the chicken leg or breast for the father; the mother claimed or learned to enjoy the bony pieces.) When women work outside the home, occupational health research tends to examine the effect of mother’s work on her children, but not on herself. Nor is much attention given to the hazards she faces in the work she does in the home, since it is not quantified in terms of earnings. Women themselves stand in their own way, for example, by consistently putting children and partners and other demands on time and financial resources above concerns for their own health. Many women continue to show a preference for traditional practices, some of which are beneficial and cost little, but some of which can be harmful. Clearly social attitudes and cultural norms must be taken into account in addressing the needs of women with respect to health care.

Answer 7

Societal norms for both men and women contribute to this spread. Women are socialized to please men and will submit themselves to high-risk behaviour to do that. For example, where virginity is valued, anal sex may be practised, which may put them at risk for HIV. Then there is deliberate selection of young girls by older men. Many women are forced to have unsafe sex, within and without steady unions. Fear prevents the female partner from bringing up condom use. The male partner often interprets this as a sign of faithfulness. In any case, motherhood is valued, and the condom prevents conception. In some societies, infertility is grounds for divorce. Women in stable relationships are at risk due to their husbands or partners having multiple partners One 1993 survey in Barbados found that men between 25 and 34 years had an average of 5 partners, whereas the women had one (Woman’s Health Journal, 2–3/94, p. 104). There is also the stigma attached to homosexuality, so that homosexual men are more likely to conceal their homosexual activity by practising bisexuality. It is accepted also, that men, more than women, use alcohol and other substances that may lead them into unsafe or casual and risky sex.

Answer 8

Many people argue that a woman’s right to self-determination, that is, to control her own body, gives her the right to decide whether or not an unwanted pregnancy should be terminated. If she wants an abortion, and the father of the child does not agree, the fact that the foetus is a part of her body, and not of his, gives her right precedence. Others argue that the developing foetus is a product of both parents and the decision to terminate a pregnancy must be mutual. There is also disagreement as to whether the foetus has the right to life or not. This is a debate that will not be resolved as claims one way or the other are mostly based on dogma making it difficult to analyse the issues rationally (Macklin, 1991). Macklin is also of the view that without safe abortion services in case of contraceptive failure for whatever reason, a family planning programme is not complete. With too many children, both mother and children are at risk. Germain (1987) points out that an estimated 200,000 or more women in the Third World die needlessly each year of improperly performed abortions (p. 1). She also believes that good reproductive health enables women to regulate fertility by conceiving when desired, terminating unwanted pregnancies, and going to term with those wanted;  remain free of the disease, fear, disability, and death associated with reproduction and sexuality;  bear and raise healthy children

Answer 9

1. Science and accountability: In this section we questioned the responsibilities and obligations of scientists to society. Two issues the dropping of the atom bomb and the history of eugenics exemplified the importance of ethical research and making scientific findings and the implications of those findings’ public. It is argued that scientists do have the responsibility for ensuring that the public knows what is taking place and what the possible results of their findings might be. 2.The gender issue: We saw that traditionally science and science based careers were until very recently male dominated. We noted the changing pattern in the Caribbean and the need to do more to change perceptions that science and technology are masculine areas. 3.Gender and health: Health care for women tends to focus on the biological aspects of health care without taking into account the social factors that limit access to what is available. These include women’s relationships with their partners and other family members, religious attitudes, and societal attitudes to matters such as infertility. Women consistently put the welfare of other family members ahead of their own health needs as well as other demands on their time and financial resources. 4. Spread of STDs: It was noted that women become involved in risky sexual behaviours to please men or out of fear and that society is more accepting of men having multiple partners. Both these factors contribute to the spread of these diseases. The stigma against homosexuality is also a contributing factor as bisexuality may be used as a cover. 5. Termination of unwanted pregnancies: Both sides of the debate on abortion rights were mentioned i.e., women have the right to decide, as the foetus is part of their bodies; the foetus is the product of two individuals so the choice should be mutual. Unwanted pregnancies are problematic; they encourage improperly performed abortions that put the mother’s life at risk, but having too many children is burdensome, affecting both mother and children.

Answer 10

1.The development and use of information and communications technology, (see Module 2, Unit 5), provides an excel- lent example of the ways in which we have become part of a global community. We have access to more information about health and disease, the environmental impact of industry and the impact of climate change on the Caribbean. We can see for ourselves the effects of mismanaging global resources and how this can affect our region. Can we afford to have others make important choices for us, especially choices that might affect our very existence on the planet?  2. No one expects any one person to be fully informed about all of the key issues affecting the economic and social devel- opment of a country. Should we therefore leave the decision- making about issues of scientific and technological importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is raised again in Unit 4 of this Module.) 3.A comfortable daily existence for all our citizens is an ideal we would like to see achieved. Each citizen has a right to: - a continuous, clean water supply - an effective sewage collection and treatment system - a continuous and reliable power supply - some reliable form of transport, whether private or public - a supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap - access to a good health system To what extent are these objectives really separate from the larger issues discussed in this course? 4. Our governments often enter into international agreements that may determine their ability to provide us with basic necessities. International events and concerns can have a direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore? what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before considering this question you might like to list all the ways you can think of that September 11 affected your country)

Answer 11

5.If you decide that you do care about some of these issues, perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can become better informed about them (e.g., through the Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should consider how you might contribute to debate on improving provisions for at least one of the issues from the list above. 6.Many people would argue that, given recent developments in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to provide an education through which people may become “scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a nation can ensure that its future decision-making is as well informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too idealistic a goal? 7. Finally, do you consider yourself to be more scientifically literate and aware than you were when you started this course? We hope you can answer affirmatively.

Lecture 7-Ethics and Gender Flashcards

(35 cards)