Lecture 6: Witnessing online aggression

Question 1

What are bystanders?

Answer 1

Focus on individuals that are confronted with acts of online aggression,
taking place between others

Question 2

Why is it so important to focus on bystanders of online aggression?

Answer 2

• Group process
• Think about Theory of planned behavior & underlying beliefs
• Bystander are also important for the continuation of the behavior of the perpetrator
• And important for the impact for victims

Question 3

What are three potential reactions/behaviors of bystanders witnessing online aggression?

Answer 3

• Helping
• Joining in
• doing nothing

Question 4

What is a worrying behavior of bystanders witnessing online aggression?

Answer 4

Most bystanders do nothing

Question 5

Why do most bystander nothing when witnessing online aggression?

Answer 5

Explained/influenced by:
1. personal characteristics
2. socio-psychological mechanisms
3. contextual factors

Question 6

What was the focus of the study? - Study: Personal Characteristics and Contextual Factors ThatDetermine“Helping,”“Joining In,”and“Doing Nothing”When Witnessing Cyberbullying (Van Cleemput et al, 2014)

Answer 6

Personal characteristics as predictors of joining in, helping and doing nothing:
- Empathy
- Social anxiety
- Involvement in cyberbullying and traditional bullying as perpetrator or victim

Question 7

What is the definition of ‘empathy’?

Answer 7

“a fundamental social skill which allows the individual to anticipate,
understand, and experience the point of view of the other people”

Question 8

What are the three aspect of ‘empathy’? (Olweus & Endresen, 2001)

Answer 8

• Perspective taking
• Empathic concern
• Empathic distress

Question 9

Which empathic aspect is most related to bystander behavior?

Answer 9

Empathic concern

Question 10

What is the definition of ‘perspective taking’? (empathy aspect)

Answer 10

Perspective taking refers to the cognitive ability to understand or adopt the viewpoint or feelings of another person.

Question 11

What is the definition of ‘empathic concern’? (empathy aspect)

Answer 11

Empathic concern is an emotional response characterized by feelings of warmth, compassion, and concern for another person’s well-being.

Question 12

What is the definition of ‘empathic distress’? (empathy aspect)

Answer 12

Empathic distress involves experiencing personal discomfort or distress in response to another person’s suffering or negative emotions

Question 13

What is the definition of ‘social anxiety’?

Answer 13

“the fear that one will make a mistake and be criticized (Miller et al. 1972)”

Question 14

What are the three aspects of ‘social anxiety’? (La Greca & Lopez, 1998)

Answer 14

• Fear of negative evaluation
• Social avoidance and distress
• Social avoidance specific to new situations or new people

Question 15

What is the relationship between social anxiety and self-efficacy in the context of bystander behavior?

Answer 15

Inverse relationship (means that as one of these factors increases, the other tends to decrease, and vice versa)

Question 16

What is the definition of ‘self-efficacy’?

Answer 16

One’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in executing a certain task, behavior, … .

Question 17

What are the socio-cognitive processes in bystander behavior?

Answer 17

• bystander effect
• Moral disengagement

Question 18

What is the ‘bystander effect’?

Answer 18

a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help or intervene in an emergency situation when there are other people present.

Question 19

Which factors contribute to the bystander effect?

Answer 19

• diffusion of responsibility
• Evaluation apprehension
• Pluralistic ignorance

Question 20

What is the definition of ‘diffusion of responsibility’? (bystander effect)

Answer 20

• Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for individuals to feel less personally responsible to take action or help when others are present.
• In a group setting, individuals may assume that someone else will take the initiative, leading to a diffusion of responsibility.

Question 21

What is the definition of ‘evaluation apprehension’? (bystander effect)

Answer 21

• Evaluation apprehension refers to the concern or fear of being judged or evaluated by others when making a decision or taking action.
• Individuals may hesitate to act in a group setting because they are worried about how their actions will be perceived by others.

Question 22

What is the definition of ‘pluralistic ignorance’? (bystander effect)

Answer 22

• Pluralistic ignorance occurs when individuals in a group mistakenly believe that their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors are different from those of the others, even though they are not.
• This misperception can lead to inaction because individuals assume that others must know something they don’t.

Question 23

What is ‘moral disengagement’?

Answer 23

• refers to a set of socio-cognitive processes that individuals may use to rationalize or justify behavior that goes against their moral principles.
• These processes allow people to distance themselves from the negative impact of their actions and reduce the guilt or discomfort associated with engaging in morally questionable behavior.

Question 24

What are the 8 ‘moral disengagement’ processes?

Answer 24

1. moral justification
2. Euphemistic labeling
3. Advantageous comparison
4. Displacement of responsibilities
5. Diffusion of responsibility
6. Distortion of Consequences
7. Dehumanization
8. Attribution of blame

Question 25

What is 'moral justification'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 25

- This involves portraying potentially harmful actions as serving a moral or higher purpose. - Individuals may convince themselves that their actions, which may otherwise be considered immoral, are justified in the service of a greater good.

Question 26

What is 'Euphemistic labeling'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 26

- Euphemistic labeling involves using mild or positive language to describe actions that are morally objectionable. (e.g., teasing, joking around) - It's a way of making harmful behavior seem less offensive.

Question 27

What is 'Advantageous comparison'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 27

This process involves comparing one's behavior to more extreme or reprehensible actions to make it seem more acceptable in comparison.

Question 28

What is 'Displacement of responsibilities'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 28

Displacement of responsibilities involves shifting the responsibility for one's actions onto others or external factors.

Question 29

What is 'Diffusion of responsibility'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 29

Similar to the bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less personally responsible to take action because they believe someone else will do so

Question 30

What is 'Distortion of Consequences'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 30

This involves minimizing or distorting the potential negative consequences of one's actions.

Question 31

What is 'Dehumanization'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 31

Dehumanization involves perceiving others as less than fully human, making it easier to justify harmful actions against them.

Question 32

What is 'Attribution of Blame'? (moral disengagement process)

Answer 32

This process involves blaming the victim or external circumstances for the harm rather than taking responsibility.

Question 33

What did a path model reveal regarding the indirect associations between psychopathy and sadism with online aggression perpetration, while considering online aggression victimization? - study: dark tetrad traits and online aggression (Pabian, 2023)

Answer 33

1. In the path model, it was found that both psychopathy and sadism were indirectly associated with online aggression perpetration. 2. This association was mediated by online moral disengagement. 3. Notably, the model controlled for the influence of online aggression victimization, highlighting the specific indirect pathways through moral disengagement linking these personality traits to the perpetration of online aggression

Question 34

What were the results of the study? – Personal Characteristics and Contextual Factors ThatDetermine“Helping,”“Joining In,”and“Doing Nothing”When Witnessing Cyberbullying (Cleemput, 2014)

Answer 34

who: * 11,1 % victim * 11,1 % perpetrator * 3,8 % both victim and perpetrator * 35,2 % Being a bystander Reactions: * 4.6% joining in * 45.1% helping * 58,6% doing nothing

Question 35

What were the main reasons for remaining passive when witnessing CB (open question answers)? – Exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander (Van Cleemput et al., 2014)

Answer 35

1. difficult to interpret situations 2. Did not want to get involved / it was not necessary to get involved 3. out of fear 4. because of relationship with perpetrator 5. because of relationship with victim 6. timing 7. victim's behavior

Question 36

What were the main reasons for remaining passive when witnessing CB (closed question answers)? – Exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander (Van Cleemput et al., 2014)

Answer 36

1. because it was not my business (31.1%) 2. because I could get bullied myself (20.1%) 3. because i did not know how to help the victim (19.4%) 4. because of other reason (11.4%) 5. because i cannot help the victim (9.8%) 6. because it is the victim's responsibility to act (8.2%)

Question 37

What was the conclusion of the study? – Exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander (Van Cleemput et al., 2014)

Answer 37

▪ At a certain age, adolescents start to feel more inhibited about helping ▪ Empathic concern predicts adequate bystander behavior ▪ Past experiences with bullying matter! ▪ Doing nothing was less well explained by the mode

Question 38

What was the goal of the desensitization study of Pabian et al. 2016?

Answer 38

Does exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander lead to desensitization, as reflected in less empathic responsiveness and a more positive attitude towards cyberbullying?

Question 39

What is the definition of 'Desensitization'?

Answer 39

Repeated exposure to a certain stimulus can lead to reduced physiological, emotional, cognitive, and/or behavioral responsiveness to it (Rule & Ferguson, 1986)

Question 40

What is the background of 'Desensitization'?

Answer 40

media effects theory

Question 41

What is the 'media effects theory'?

Answer 41

“a theory that attempts to explain the uses and effects of media on individuals, groups, or societies as a whole” (Valkenburg & Oliver, 2019)

Question 42

What is central in the 'media effects theory'?

Answer 42

- Exposure to specific mediated messages or stories - Potential changes that this media use can bring about in individuals, groups, or societies ▪ Changes? Deliberate and/or non-deliberate; short- and/or long-term; individual and/or collective; ▪ Changes in cognitions, emotions, attitudes and behavior

Question 43

What changes can the media bring in individuals, groups, or societies? (media effects theory)

Answer 43

▪ Deliberate and/or non-deliberate; short- and/or long-term; individual and/or collective; ▪ Changes in cognitions, emotions, attitudes and behavior

Question 44

What does Desensitization mean in the present study? - desensitization study (Pabian et al., 2016)

Answer 44

Desensitization in terms of lower empathic responsiveness and more positive attitudes towards cyberbullying

Question 45

What is the principle of cognitive consistency?

Answer 45

Individuals derive their cognitions, beliefs, and attitudes from their own overt behavior = expression effects (Bem, 1972; Valkenburg, Peter, & Walther, 2016)

Question 46

What is 'Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory'?

Answer 46

Individuals have an inner drive to hold attitudes, beliefs, and behavior in harmony (Festinger, 1962)

Question 47

What is empathic responsiveness?

Answer 47

Empathic concern towards distressed others

Question 48

What did the results show? - desensitization study (Pabian et al., 2016)

Answer 48

- exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander at Time 1 predicted subsequent lower levels of empathic responsiveness at Time 2. - The attitude towards cyberbullying at Time 2 was not influenced by seeing more cyberbullying acts at Time 1.