Lecture 6 definitions

Question 1

Emotions

Answer 1

Represent feelings (or affect) states of short duration that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological and behavioural reactions to events

Question 2

Categorial alternative

Answer 2

Indicates that emotions are discrete (on/off) states => one is either angry or not

Question 3

Dimensional approach

Answer 3

Indicates that emotions vary along a continuum (or multiple) => E.g., we have multiple words describing anger: irritated, upset, angry, livid, fuming, enraged

Question 4

Circumplex model

Answer 4

Perspective that proposes that emotion varies along two continua: valence (how unpleasant <=> pleasant something feels) and arousal (activation <=> deactivation: how intense/energized an emotion is)

Question 5

Of which four main features do emotions exist?

Answer 5

Eliciting stimuli, appraisals (meaning and significance) of these stimuli, physiological response and behavioural response (consisting of expressive behaviours and instrumental behaviours)

Question 6

Eliciting stimuli

Answer 6

Refer to internal or external stimuli that trigger cognitive appraisals and emotional responses. Some stimuli have the greatest potential to arouse emotions because of innate biological factors. We are primed to respond to stimuli/events of evolutionary importance (fear of heights, snakes). But through experience, we can learn emotional responses to previously harmless stimuli

Question 7

Emotional appraisals

Answer 7

Refer to the interpretations and meanings that we attach to sensory stimuli and events. They can be conscious or unconscious and can influence how we express our emotions and act on them.

Question 8

Psychological response

Answer 8

Can be represented by activity of the autonomic nervous and endocrine system. One may have a higher heart rate and blood pressure, increased sweating and/or a release of stress hormones. Emotions involve interaction between several brain areas: the brainstem (pons), limbic system (amygdala), cerebral cortex (prefrontal), hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

Question 9

Atrophy of the amygdala (Urbach-Wiethe disease)

Answer 9

Patient SM suffered from severe atrophy of the amygdala. They had no deficits in intelligence or language but they did have a profound inability to recognise and experience fear. Other emotions were unaffected.

Question 10

Dual-Pathways model

Answer 10

States that the thalamus can send messages along two independent neural pathways: via the “high road” to the cortex or the “low road” to the amygdala. The low road enables the amygdala to receive direct input from senses. This enables the generation of emotional reactions before the cerebral cortex has had time to interpret the stimuli. Hence, it allows the organism to respond very quickly.

Question 11

HPA Axis

Answer 11

Hypothalamus activation via the “low road” pathway can trigger the release of stress hormones via the pituitary gland. These hormones trigger the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands, leading to an “adrenaline rush”. This pathway is called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This typically triggers a “fight-or-flight” response.

Question 12

Expressive behaviours

Answer 12

Refers to the person’s observable emotional displays (e.g. facial expressions like smiling or frowning; crying). Facial expressions of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms. These norms can manifest as display rules (context where expression is taboo or not). E.g., Japan, where strong negative emotion in the presence of a respected elder is avoided.

Question 13

Instrumental behaviours

Answer 13

Refers to behaviours directed at achieving some emotion-relevant goal (e.g., punching someone in the face). Emotional responses are often “calls to action”. Relationship between emotional arousal and performance takes the shape of an “inverted U”. It all depends on the complexity of the task. Simpler tasks require higher optimal levels of arousal.

Question 14

James-Lange theory

Answer 14

Argues that our bodily reactions determine the subjective emotion we experience. Basically, “we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble”.

Question 15

What evidence is there for the James-Lange theory?

Answer 15

One can perceive one’s own bodily reactions, which enhances the intensity of the emotion. Moreover, the facial feedback hypothesis argues that facial movement can influence emotional experience (smiling & happiness).

Question 16

Cannon-Bard theory

Answer 16

Comes as a response to the James-Lange theory. Arousal response may take seconds to emerge, while people experience emotions immediately. The subjective experience of emotion and physiological arousal do not cause one another (too slow) but instead are independent responses to an emotion-arousing situation. To prove the theory, Cannon separated the nerves in animals that provide feedback from the internal organs to the brain. The result was that emotional responses persisted.

Question 17

Two-factor theory (Schacter)

Answer 17

Schacter proposed that emotion is produced by two interdependent factors. The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling about something, whilst situational cues give us the information we need to label the arousal and tell ourselves what we are feeling (fear, anger, love, etc.) For example, if you walk in the forest and suddenly encounter a bear, your body might respond with a rapid heartbeat and a surge of adrenaline. In this situation, you would interpret the bear as a threat and label your emotion as fear. But, if you were in a different context (such as a zoo) and see the bear from a safe distance, you might still experience the same physiological arousal, but your cognitive interpretation might label the emotion as ‘excitement’ rather than fear.

Question 18

What evidence is there for the two-factor theory?

Answer 18

Participants were told that the study was about the effect of a new vitamin on visual perception. Then, the arousal was manipulated without telling the participants (highly unethical). It was discovered that an injection with adrenaline increases arousal, while an injection with a placebo has no effect on arousal. During the experiment, participants watched a short funy movie. Those on adrenaline found the movie funnier than those with no adrenaline.