Lecture 5 Flashcards
long-term memory
- Memory is vital for our lives because it contains everything we know
We don’t know the duration or capacity of LTM
how is information in the LTM stored
○ Stored semantically
Whether we are able to remember items from LTM depends on how they were encoded and how we attempt to retrieve them
ebbinghaus forgetting curve
○ Wanted to study the capacity and duration of LTM
○ Tried to memorize sets of trigrams (3 letter combos that don’t make a word)
○ Studied them until he knew them perfectly
○ Tested himself over a month
Plateaus at some point
primacy effect
Memory of items at beginning of list
serial position curve
“U”-shaped learning curve that is normally obtained while recalling a list of words due to the greater accuracy of recall of words from the beginning and end of the list than words from the middle of the list
Evidence that these effects (primacy + recency) involve separate memory systems comes from observation that we can eliminate one with the other
recency effect
® Memory of items at end of list
Evidence that these effects involve separate memory systems comes from observation that we can eliminate one with the other
middle of list memory
® Worse memory
Can be explained by decay theory and interference theory
retroactive interference
® Inhibitory effects of new information on old information
Items at beginning of list are affected by this
proactive interference
® Inhibitory effects of old information on new information
Items at end of list are affected by this
squire
One of the most influential memory systems frameworks was proposed by Squire
- declarative and procedural memory
declarative memory
a type of memory that involves consciously recalling specific past events or experiences, such as remembering where you were when a significant event occurred.
semantic memory
® What we know/stuff
Ex. definitions
episodic memory
® Memory of experiences
Ex. learning about definitions
recognition
Shown items
free recall
Whatever word you can in no specific order
serial recall
Remember words in specific order
cued recall
Given a cue/hint to help you recall
procedural memory
® Memory on how to do stuff
® Ex. riding a bike
Even though you are consciously aware, the muscle actions need to be conscious
explicit memory types
not consciously aware of
- semantic memory
- episodic memory
- recognition
- recall
implicit memory types
consciously aware of
- procedural
- priming
- classical conditioning
- non-associative learning
priming
Better response the second time due to the first presentation of it
semantic priming
a facilitation of responding that occurs as a result of the presentation of a semantically related word, as when presentation of the word “nurse” facilitates access to or decisions regarding “doctor.”
retrograde amnesia
§ Memory loss for events prior to trauma
§ Typically recovers
Graded
non-associative learning
® Desensitization to a stimulus
Ex. aware of sitting on a chair
repetition priming
a form of implicit memory, whereby classification or identification of a stimulus is improved by prior presentation of the same stimulus
classical conditioning
learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour.
anterograde amnesia
§ Memory loss for events after amnesia
Typically does not recover
HM study
□ Seizures started at 10, perhaps having smtg to do with his bike accident
□ By 27, they became intractable: so severe no medication helped, would happen multiple times a day
□ Bilateral removal of medial temporal lobe in 1953
□ Successfully treated seizures
Intelligence, language, personality, and memory for past events relatively intact
what HM couldnt do
® Complete loss of ability to form new memories
® Loss of memory consolidation
® Had lost all ability to form new explicit memories but demonstrated normal implicit learning
® Didn’t understand his new home when he moved to an assisted living home
® Didn’t understand his parents passed away, and learned it for the first time every day
Didn’t remember he was aging; thought he was 27 and would see pictures of himself and not recognize himself
what HM could do
® Priming
◊ Word completion tasks despite not remembering reading the list
◊ Image completion despite not remembering seeing it for the first time
® Procedural tasks
Memory for action ex. mirror tracing even though no memory of being able to do it for the first time
synaptic consolidation
○ Occurs at the neuronal level and is fast-acting
We now know that long-term potentiation increases the sensitivity of post-synaptic neurons by causing structural changes
systems consolidation
○ Involves multiple brain structures and can take decades
○ Formation of long-lasting stable memories requires more than a local cellular response
Medial temporal lobe is particularly important for systems consolidation
standard model of consolidation
§ Is hippocampal-dependent, but retrieval is hippocampal-independent
Hippocampus binds information across different cortical areas- over time, cortical connections are strengthened
multiple trace theory (MTT)
§ Like the standard model, it is hippocampal-dependent for consolidation and hippocampal-independent for retrieval, but for semantic memories only
§ Unlike the standard model, it is hippocampal-dependent for consolidation and retrieval of episodic memories
○ Each time memory is reactivated, hippocampus “points” to active cortical regions - the more overlap across time, the stronger the memory
Hippocampus is important for binding information in time and space
reconsolidation
Occurs when a memory is reactivated but over a much shorter time course
memory processes
- Is generally believes that episodic memories become semanticized when hippocampus is not involved in storage or retrieval
Although there is behavioural evidence of semanticization of episodic memories, individuals with developmental amnesia provide support for a processing view of memory
jon case study
§ Suffered hippocampal damage at 4
Resulted in anterograde amnesia for episodic memory -> semantic memory, language development, school performance and IQ were normal
Craik and Lockart’s 1972 levels of processing view
○ Was an alternative to systems approaches to describing memory
Describes the observation that how we encode information affects the likelihood of retrieval, rather than where it is stored or how long it is stored there
incidental recall
□ Participants were not expecting a recall task
Were surprised asked to recall
maintenance rehearsal
□ Keeps information active in STM
Repeating info over and over again
elaborative rehearsal
□ Links info from STM with that already in LTM
Adding meaning to information
elaboration
creates meaningful links to LTM
craik and lockhart study procedure
§ Showed two words in diff fonts and asked if they were written in the same font
§ Showed two words that rhymed and asked if they rhymed
§ Showed two similar words and asked if they were similar
§ Were least likely to remember diff fonts, then rhyme and most likely for synonym
§ Thus, memory is a by-product of the level at which information is processed at encoding
criticism of craik and lockhart study
Did not independently define what deep processing is
ex. they said deep processing leads to better memory
but this is both the definition of deep processing and the results.
should’ve said memory is better after processing for meaning hence deep processing leads to better memory
distinctiveness
○ AKA isolation effect or the von restorff effect
○ Different from all other memories in LTM
One cue tells us exactly where to find information
feeling of knowing
□ You know you have the memory but you cannot retrieve it
Ex. in a test you read a question you know the answer too but can’t retrieve it
role of retrieval
○ Forgetting from LTM is often caused by retrieval failures
Information is available but not accessible
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
□ You know the memory is there but can’t retrieve all the information
Ex. can picture seeing the page of the textbook for the question but can’t retrieve it
cued vs uncued recall via tulving and pearlstone
® Showing a list of words with one letter in bold
More likely to remember that letter and word
encoding specificity theory
○ Levels of processing theory predicts that they deeper the processing at encoding, the better the retrieval
Learning is better when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval
But, sometimes shallow processing can produce better recall than deep processing
state-dependent learning
phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same
state-dependent learning example
® If I’m drunk in class, should I come to the exam drunk too?
® Intoxicated at encoding and retrieval is better than just encoding
But memory is better if sober at encoding even if drunk at retrieval
transfer appropriate processing
memory performance is not only determined by the depth of processing, but by the relationship between how information is initially encoded and how it is later retrieved
Context dependent learning (environmental context effects) example
® Scuba divers learned word lists on land and in water
® Memory scores are best when encoding and retrieving in water
Environment was a cue for remembering even though words were unrelated
Context dependent learning (environmental context effects)
the storage and retrieval of memory are influenced by the environment in which it was learned or remembered
tulving and thompson 1973 level of processing theory study and phase 1
§ Provide evidence that causes problems for levels of processing theory
§ Phase 1
□ Target words presented with context words
® Ex. Train - BLACK
tulving and thompson 1973 level of processing theory study results
□ Participants recalled more words than they recognized
□ Recognition in phase 3= 24%, recall in phase 4= 63%
Can conclude the encoding specificity principle is an important factor in memory code
tulving and Thompson 1973 level of processing theory phase 2
§ Phase 2
□ Free association task
□ Given new words and told to write first word they thought
□ Hoped that they would write recall target words even though not told to
tulving and Thompson 1973 level of processing theory phase 3
§ Phase 3
□ Recognition task using self-generated items from phase 2
□ Look at words they wrote down and circle the ones they remember being target words from phase 11
tulving and Thompson 1973 level of processing theory phase 4
§ Phase 4
□ Cued recall task using context words from phase 1
Train - _
how to improve LTM
- Engage in deep processing (add meaning to meaningless lists/information)
Organize - make it personally relevant
- Generate the information yourself
- Use imagery
- Use interactive images
organize via bower study
§ Students organizing information using hierarchy/categories
§ 72 items to remember
Over 4 trials, participants in hierarchy remembered all 72 items while participants without this remembered only half
make it personally related via rogers study
§ We think as more important
More likely to remember
Generate the information yourself via slameka and graf 1978 study
§ Showed participants either full words or full word and half word
□ Ex. king-crown and king-cr
Those who generated crown themselves were more likely to remember later
use interactive images via bower and winzenz 1970
Image of wearing bread shoes instead of a photo of bread and a photo of shoes
importance of practice for LTM
- Levels of processing and encoding specificity help explain why distributed practice leads to better memory than massed practice
- More likely to engage in elaborate coding due to alternate strategy use
Increased number of cues available to use at recall
- More likely to engage in elaborate coding due to alternate strategy use
distributed practice
§ Spreading info over time
Ex. 2 hours 4 days in a row
massed practice
§ Info all at once
Ex. 8 hours in one day
