Lecture 4 - is all the world a stage? the presentation of the self Flashcards
Dramaturgical school
SI - exchange of symbols in interactions
focuses on how the self is “performed” for others
Why dramaturgical
actors on a stage
argued that people put on masks and performances to manage the impressions that others shave of them
Is there a self?
choose to act differently from our identities during social exchanges and … we have to practice identities before fully incorporating them into our senses of self
Ramifications for the self
able to audition different identities
shape whether and how we integrate these identities into a self-concept
the performance of the identity is central to its adoption into the self-concept
Areas of performance
front stage / back stage
Front stage
where we present ourselves to others
Backstage
where we relax impression management and practice our presentations
inaccessible to outsiders
allows people to knowingly violate the appearances they present in front regions
seeing backstage will ruin the performance that has occurred in the front stage
Types of presentation
multiple forms of the presentation of self
one may have an ideal presentation of what we wish we were
the authentic presentation is consistent with who we think we are
we present ourselves as others want or expect us to be
Authentic presentations
self-disclosure - revealing personal aspects of one’s feelings and behavior
self-disclosure tends to lead to greater appreciation from others and can reduce loneliness
disclosure that is too intimate for the depth of the relationship can lead to disliking
Impression management
the ways that individuals seek to control the impressions they convey to other people
tactical impression management because the use of use of conscious, goal-directed activity to control info to influence impressions
Impression
Likable and competent
we may also want to make people fear us, respect us for our morals, or feel sorry for us
Information seeking
we seek info from people in interactions
to help establish expectations for our behaviors and others in the situation
can attempt to manage the info that we provide to others, thereby managing expectations
Appearances
refers to everything about a person that others can observe
include possessions, clothes, physical habits, and non-verbal cues
through appearances, we communicate who we are and the type of actions we intend to pursue
Physical appearances
physical appearances such as clothes and make-up can be used to communicate identities
deviating from common norms can also be sued as a means of communication
Props- can also be used
Ingratiation
attempts to make people like us more through impression management
we are not necessarily always aware that we are utilizing impression management for ingratiation
Conditions for ingratiation
depend on someone else for rewards/benefits and believe that the person will be more likely to bestow these on individuals they like
when the other person has greater discretion in doing out these rewards
Organizational Context
when roles are ambiguous, members of the organization are likely to be unclear on whether they are doing a good job
people are likely to use ingratiation to ensure they are perceived as competent and receive rewards
Status and ingratiation
status also tends to shape the success of ingratiation
people of higher status tend to be less successful than people of equal or lower status
higher-status targets may be more careful due to a suspicion regarding ingratiation motives
Ingratiation tactics
“other focused”
- opinion conformity
- other enhancement
- supplication
other -focused because they are intended to increase another’s person’s likely for the individual
Opinion conformity
when we pretend to share someone’s views on important issues
because people tend to like others who hold opinions similar to their own
to avoid arousing suspicion, one should mix conformity on important issues with disagreement on unimportant issues
Other enhancement
Outfight flattery or complimenting of the target person
effective when targeting areas in which individuals wish to excel but are unsure of themselves
people tend to respond positively to other enhancement due to vanity
- we like to be evaluated positively by others
Playing dumb
Another form of enhancement
when we pretend to be less intelligent or knowledgeable to give someone else a sense of superiority
people tend to play dumb when they hold Lower-status positions in competitive occupations where knowledge is valued
Additional reasons to play dumb
please ignorance or incompetence to avoid acting or taking on a task
one may also do so to avoid responsibility
- used by organizational leaders
supplication
when we convince others we are needy and deserving
separate from ingratiation
seems to be grouped here because it is other-focused and can ultimately result in ingratiation
Selective self-presentation
we present our qualities to increase our likeability to others
try to present our qualities in terms of strengths, virtues, and admirable qualities self-promotion)
-opinion conformity in job interviews may be more effective
Self-deprecation
present our attributes, but make an only humble or modest claims
especially effective when a culture values as honesty and objectivity in self-appraisal
used in moderation or people may form a negative evaluation of us
Computer mediated communication (CMC)
writer and the receiver are physically isolated from each other, so the receiver does not have access to nonverbal cues, which are often less controlled and therefore more revealing
people have more control over presentation of self, especially through control over content and timing of messages
CMC and interactions
this can be an idealized or imagined self
One can have a separate identity on online platforms, or change physical appearances
Additional presentation
present a self that could be produced in the future
E.g., Posting on a dating site 10 lbs. lighter than one actually is
others use MCM as a means of keeping the focus on the self
“I like to be center of attention”
Public figures
how they use social media
these individuals are often already in the public eye
how the self is presented as a means of communicating with a broader public
Examined professional athletes’ instagram post
athletes’ postings conformed to gender norms
Ex: women were more likely to post pictures that involved touching
Authenticity
athletes also were more likely to post personal or social pictures than athletics or competitions
suggest thatches was a strategy to appear “authentic”
-the more genuine an athlete appears the more they appear to share similar interests and characteristics with audiences
likability
people attempt to manipulate their likability
using instagram as a form of ingratiation
they are using behaviour conformity
technique when one wishes to create a greater sense of similarity with one’s viewer
When a performance fails
may not always be successful
experience embarrassment - feeling we we experience when the public identity we claim in an encounter is discredited
Specific sources of embarassment
People’s performance skills do not match the identity they claim
“im a great cook”
Cognitive shortcomings, such as forgetting someone’s name
Violation of privacy
-In other words, the incursion of front-stage into backstage
Lack of poise
-Loss of control of equipment or one’s body, or tearing one’s clothes
Embarrassment due to others
feel embarrassment when the performance of others fails
This can especially occur when our own successful performance highlights another’s failure
feel embarrassment because the assumption on which we built our interaction has been falsified
Face-work
try to protect our own and others’ presentation of self
“lose face” when we fail to give off the desired impression
we may engage in “face-work,” “in which we to try to protect our own and others’ presentation of self
why do we engage in face work
may not only endeavour to protect our own identity performance, but the performance of others as well
We do this in part to support the interaction, but also because supporting others engenders reciprocity whereby others may support us in future interactions
Face-Work and embarrassment
when we face embarrassment due to our performance
responsibility is on person who caused embarrassment, but all may participate in negating embarrassment
may be motivated because embarrassment is uncomfortable to all involved
Types of face-work
“save face”
Defensive practices are apologies or excuses for one’s poor performance
Protective practices are practices by one’s “audience” that help maintain the performance
E.g., ignore a poor part of the performance or let the actor off the hook
Aligning interactions
“attempts to define their apparently questionable conduct as actually in line with cultural or group norms”
Disclaimers
anticipate their performance “will disrupt smooth social interaction, invite criticism, or threaten their established identity
people attempt to prevent negative implications by defining their actions as irrelevant to their established identities
An extraordinary case
performance would normally have a negative identity, but underscore that this is not a usual set of circumstances
negative judgement should be reserved
Alternative disclaimers
“extraordinary credentials”
The “some of my best friends are” defense
one could point to a lack of credentials, especially when uncertain how others will react to new information or suggestions
Accounts
These occur after disruptive behavior
repair the damage
explanations people offer to mitigate responsibility after they have performed acts that threaten their identities
be categorized as excuses and justifications
Excuses
intended to reduce the observer’s tendency to hold the individual responsible or to make negative inferences about the actor’s character
also preserve the individual’s self-image and reduce the stress associated with failure
Types of excuses
deny responsibility for unsuitable behavior
point to uncontrollable events
cite external coercive pressure
indicate compelling internal pressure
Types of excuses: point to uncontrollable events
(“I missed the exam because I was kidnapped by Martians.”)
Types of excuses: cite external coercive pressure
I stole the money because the Martians threatened to release embarrassing pictures of me
Types of excuses: indicated compelling internal pressure
(“I would have come to the party, but I was too depressed about the war with Mars.”)
Justifications
intended to reduce the perceived wrongness of behaviour
one admits responsibility for the unsuitable behaviour
one also tries to define the behaviour as appropriate under the circumstances
Purpose of justification
admit responsibility but reduce the perceived wrongness of the behaviour
E.g., “Sure I hit him, but that’s because he said something bigoted about Martians”
the difference between excuses and justifications is that with a justification, we do not deny responsibility for unsuitable behaviour, and we do with excuses
When are accounts accepted
People are more likely to accept accounts:
When the content appears truthful and conforms with the explanations commonly used for such behavior
When the individual who gives them is trustworthy, penitent, and of superior status, and when the identity violation is not serious
When face-work ends
one’s audience may cease engaging in face-work
occur when people repeatedly fail to meet performance standards
Cooling-out or identity degradation are two alternatives
Cooling out
Persuading someone to accept a less-desirable, reasonable, alternative identity
E.g., convincing a Master’s student not to pursue a Ph.D. and work for StatsCan instead
Based on persuasion, not force
Cooling-out actions usually try to protect the failed performer’s privacy, console them, and reduce distress
Identity degradation
failed performer into a non-person
“An individual who cannot be trusted to perform as a normal member of the social group because of bad motives”
Imposes a severe loss, done with force, as individuals are made to take on new identities
Often involve a dramatic ceremony, such as a criminal trial
Degradation vs cooling out
Cooling-out is more likely when the offender has had prior relations of empathy and solidarity with others and when alternative identity options are available
Degradation is more likely when prior relationships entailed little intimacy or when respectable alternative identities are not readily available
An issue in degradation
rare that there are public ceremonies to restore someone’s identity or return someone to society
have suggested that community-based, public “redemption rituals” could ease someone’s return to society
Others argue for a lifetime of a spoiled identity
Stigma and identity
how one can obtain a spoiled identity
concept of stigma
reduced in our minds from a whole and usual person to a tainted discounted one
How stigma affects identity
stigma refers to a social identity, or membership in some social category, that calls into question a person’s full humanity—the person is devalued, spoiled, or flawed in the eyes of others
socially derogated group in turn leads to a socially devalued identity
Degradation and stigma
becomes a felon or has resigned in failure
there are few public ways to remove stigma once it is created through identity degradation
One is always an “ex-con
Varieties of stigma
he grouped having a physical defect, being a criminal, and being a member of an ethnic minority all under “stigma,” even though they have nothing in common
What is common about stigma
it results in a spoiled identity in which one is considered lesser-than due to ability or morality
Stigma and performance
overlays the performance of the self
one is prevented from a competent performance b/c stigma disqualifies the ind from the ability to perform well
result is discomfort during social interactions
Stigma and discomfort
discomfort arises because both the performer and audience are uncertain about appropriate behavior
may be uncertain about whether to call attention to or ignore the stigma
Stigmatized individuals may vacillate between withdrawal and persistent against limitations
Stigma and fear
non-stigmatized individual may also feel danger in interacting with stigmatized individuals
may also feel a risk of social discreditation from associating with a stigmatized individual
one may also feel disgust in interacting with a stigmatized individual
Sympathy and compassion may also be simultaneously felt
Behavioral implications
non-stigmatized individuals will limit their behavior when interacting with stigmatized individuals
serve to limit the uncertainty when interacting with the stigmatized individual, thereby reducing their discomfort
Effects of being stigmatized
When people experience a stigma, they will behave as if they are treated negatively regardless if they are or not
tend to perform more poorly, and exhibit indications that they are more anxious, tense, and less well adjusted
Challenges to the presentation
the recipient of impression management may not be motivated to engage in face-work at all
If you win I lose
may lose in some way if the presentation of self is maintained
Car sales men – never assume that car sales man is trying to help you out because they helped you out
Catch them – present a self that may not be true
Ex: acting like you don’t know anything about cars but you actually know a lot
Looking to unmask
motivated to the reverse of face-work
“unmask” the presenter and reveal in inauthentic presentation of self
may look to ulterior motives or cues that accompany action
Can you catch people in deception or people stretching the truth
Ulterior motives
individuals may have self-serving motives, their presentation may be questioned
-May stretch the truth for their personal purposes
“the very conditions that increase the temptation to use deception also make the target more vigilant”
Ex: tinder date, having a drink, you may be more cautious knowing what their intentions are
Non- verbal leakage
the inadvertent communication of true intentions or emotions through nonverbal channels
occur through diction, body language
one may have less control over some of these nonverbal channels
Points to look for
lower control over voice and body movements
these tend to be the points of the highest “leakage” of information
that deceivers will try to shorten head, leg, and foot movements as a means of controlling leakage
Detection of deception
tend not to correctly identify deception
rely on the wrong information or cues when judging deception
-High level of false detection because they tend to look at the wrong things
Additional issues
Skilled tactical impression managers can provide a good performance
give off cues when acting as audience, thereby allowing the performer to adjust their performance
Ex: meeting someone new on a blind date
Ask lots of questions, and listen
Best tips for detecting deception
pay more attention to auditory than visual cues - as these are less under control by a speaker
verbal content can also be informative
-because people who engage in deception stumble over words
Truthful accounts will generally be more logically structured and contain more details
