Lecture 3: Zisi to Mencius Flashcards
What is the Si-Meng School? What are the most evident changes from Confucius to Mencius in the Confucian part of Guodian bamboo slips?
The recent (1993) unearthed Guodian bamboo slips, dated c.350 BC, confirm the transition from Confucius’s grandson Zisi (子思493-406 B.C.), to Mencius (孟子371-289 B.C.). Previously, Mencius was regarded as the second sage after Confucius. However, there was a 130-year gap between the two thinkers. We now know that Zisi was also a great thinker. Scholars today agree to call them the Si-Meng School or Si-Meng Xue Pai, 思孟學派 (思孟学派).
Explain the meaning and importance of text related to “Dao starts from feeling,” in particular the concept of “feeling.”
Zisi placed an emphasis on human feeling, due to the belief that dao stems from human emotions. In the Xìng Zì Mìng Chū《性自命出》(Human Nature Comes from Mandate): “Human nature comes from mandate. Mandate descends from Heaven. Dao stars from human feeling. Human feeling is born from human nature. Those who begins from human feeling will end up with righteousness.”
Explain the distinctions between “virtuous action” and “mere action”, “excellence” and “virtue”, “human way” and “heavenly way” in the Wuxing.
In the Doctrine of the Mean, what is the philosophical meaning of saying, “What Heaven imparts to human beings is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the Way. Cultivating the Way is called Education.”
From the Zhong Yong 中庸 (Doctrine of the Mean), “mean” is defined as that which is in the middle. However, that which is the middle is not necessarily the best. Nowadays, it should be translated as Centrality and Commonality, where zhong means centrality and yong means everyday normalness. Zisi’s believes that “human nature comes from mandate; the mandate descends from Heaven” and develops it into a systematic vision of Heaven, Human Nature and education: “What Heaven imparts to human beings is called human Nature. To follow human nature is called the Way. Cultivating the Way is called Education.” (SB p.98) The concept of “nature” (xing性) represents that which is properly human, or the essential nature of human beings.
Explain the meaning of the concepts of “centrality” (zhōng 中) and “sincerity” (chéng 誠).
There are two meanings of zhōng 中 (centrality). Metaphysically, it refers to the centrality understood as the ultimate reality in ancient religion. (Book of Documents, SB, p.9) This concept of zhong as the ultimate reality is believed by many countries, not just China (cf. Mircea Eliade). Psychologically, it means the true self, or transcendental self before its expression into empirical emotions. (SB, p.98) It is difficult to attain zhong, so, it changes to cheng 誠 (sincerity), which is more accessible to everyone. There is an inner connection or dynamic identification of the ultimate reality and human authentic self, expressed by cheng, understood both as true reality and sincerity. Back then, they didn’t have the word zhēn 真 to express true, so Zisi decided to use cheng.
Explain Mencius’ concept of sìduān 四端 “four sprouts” or “four beginnings” and his theory of human nature.
Like Confucius, Mencius is looking for the transcendental foundation of human ethical actions. That is, what is it within us that leads to morality? He names the human transcendental capacity of becoming good sìduān 四端 “four sprouts” or “four beginnings”: feeling of commiseration, feeling of shame and dislike, feeling of respect and reverence, and feeling of right and wrong (although, these are more intellectual). Remember the idea that dao starts from feelings. Virtues such as humanness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are to be seen as fulfillment or unfolding in full of these four beginnings in human nature. For Mencius, human nature is good, because our actions come from feelings, and feelings are good. He disagrees with Zisi, who says that yi comes from the outside.
- “If you let people follow their feelings, they will be able to do good. This is what is meant by saying human nature is good. If man does evil, it is not the fault of his natural endowment. The feeling of commiseration is found in all humans; the feeling of shame and dislike is found in all humans; the feeling of respect and reverence is found in all humans; and the feeling of right and wrong is found in all humans. The feeling of commiseration is what we call humaneness; the feeling of shame and dislike is what we call righteousness; the feeling of respect and reverence is what we call propriety; and the feeling of right and wrong is what we call wisdom. Humaneness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not drilled into us from outside. We originally have them with us.” (Mencius, 6A6, SB. p.54)
- “Now, when a person suddenly sees a child about to fall into a well, he has a feeling of alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child’s parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because he dislikes the child’s crying for help. From such a case, we see that a person without the feeling of commiseration is not human; and a person without a feeling of shame and dislike is not human; a person without the feeling of respect and reverence is not human; a person without the feeling of right and wrong is not human. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humaneness; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of respect and reverence is the beginning of propriety; the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom… If anyone with these Four Beginnings in him knows how to give them the fullest extension and development, the result will be like the fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to shoot forth…” (Mencius, 2A:6, SB p.65)
Explain Mencius’ concept of xīn 心 or “mind/heart/feeling” and its relation with human nature and Heaven.
The term xīn 心, “mind/heart/feeling,” as a general term, denotes human intellectual and affective capacity; as specific term, it denotes the feelings of commiseration, of shame and dislike, of respect and reverence, and of right and wrong. For Mencius, if one can unfold sincerely his xin to its utmost degree, he will be able to know his own human nature and thereby know Heaven. This is a very idealistic view. It is also different from Confucius and Zisi, since Mencius thinks of heaven as inside us.
- “He who exerts his mind/heart to the utmost knows his own nature. He who knows his nature knows Heaven. To preserve one’s heart and to nourish one’s nature is to serve Heaven.” (Mencius, 7A:1, SB p.78)
What are the main ideas of Mencius’ political philosophy?
Explain Mencius’ the following three distinctions: “human vs animal”, “yi (righteousness) vs. li (profit)”, and “despot vs king”.
Mencius makes the distinction between yi 義 (righteousness) and li 利 (profit) in politics, where the question is not to put benefit and rightness into dualistic opposition, but to see whether one is searching for profit for one’s own profit, or for the common good and public interest. Mencius also emphasizes the difference between bà 霸 (despot) and wáng 王 (king).
- In Mencius, King Hui asked Mencius, what did you bring here that is of profit? “Mencius replied to King Hui of Liang, ‘Why must your Majesty use the term profit? What I have to offer are nothing but humanity and righteousness. If your Majesty ask what is profitable to your country, if the great officers ask what is profitable to their families, and if the inferior officers and the common people ask what is profitable to themselves, then both the superiors and the subordinates will try to snatch the profit from one another and the country will crumble.’” (Mencius, 1A.1, SB, p.60)
- “A ruler who uses force to make a pretense at humanity is a despot. Such a despot requires a large kingdom. A ruler who practices humanity with virtue is a true king. To become a true king does not depend on a large kingdom. Tang became so with only seventy li, and King Wen with only a hundred. When force is used to overcome people, they do not submit willingly but only because they have not sufficient force to resist. But when virtue is used to overcome people, they are pleased in their hearts and sincerely submit, as the seventy people submit to Confucius.” (Mencius, 2A:3, SB. p.64)
Explain Mencius’ principle of “people’s priority” and Confucian idea of democracy.
There should be a priority of the people over the ruler. People have the right to resist tyranny, and can remove the ruler even by means of force and violence. Even so, how come democracy didn’t rise in China even with these sorts of ideas so early on? This is because when a king is killed, he is replaced by another king. The system of power does not consider how to distribute power to the people. Everyone is still submissive to the ruling power. As well, Confucius believed that you can live a meaningful life under whatever political structure. Thus, he never moved on to fully develop something like democracy.
- “The people are the most important; the spirit of the land and grain are the next; the ruler is of slightest importance. To gain the hearts of the peasantry is the way to become an emperor; to gain the heart of the emperor is the way to become a feudal lord; to gain the heart of the feudal lord is the way to become a great officer. When a feudal lord endangers the territory, he is removed and replaced. When sacrificial animals have been well fed, the millets and vessels have been all pure, and the sacrificial rites have been performed at proper time, if yet there are still droughts and floods, the spirit of the land and grain are removed and replaced.” (Mencius, 7B14, SB, p.81)
What are some critical comments on Fung Yu-lan’s putting yi (righteousness) and li (profit) into opposition in both Confucius and Mencius. Is it true that Confucius and Mencius have opposed righteousness to profit? Explain why.
Fung emphasises the polar opposition of profit and righteousness in his discussion of Mencius (who favours righteousness), and Mo Tzu (who favours profit). Remember, for Mencius, profit is simply on a different level from righteousness. He thus does not totally discredit the concept of profit. He simply takes the quest for common good (profit) as the righteous. When (p. 75) Fung describes Mencius as claiming that the state must have a sound economic basis, this demonstrates that Mencius does place some value on profit, since profit is at the basis of economic system. Mencius does not want to put righeteousness and profit into dualistic opposition, but rather asks whether one is searching for profit for one’s own profit, or for the common good and public interest.
