Lecture 3 - Memory and Executive Function Flashcards
1
Q
Piaget Stage Theory
A
- emphasised qualitative changes in children’s capabilities and mental operations - what they can do vs cannot at each stage
- info processing approach
- emphasised: quantitative changes & task demands (whether they fail)
- 2 findings:
1. object permanence - below 8m ‘out of sight out of mind’. but with looking time evidence Baillargeon (1985) found 5m olds look longer at impossible events
2. A not B error - to about 10m. infants believe they make object appear by searching for it. but looking time evidence shows younger infants can keep track of hidden objects
2
Q
Piaget on early memory
A
- children under 18 incapable of mentally representing objects and events live in a ‘here and now’ world.
- infantile amnesia (pillemer & white 1989) - infants incapable of forming early memories.
- but once specialised methods developed can see infants have some memory abilities = major developmental changes are quantitative (capacity/duration)
3
Q
modal model of memory (A & S 1969)
A
- perception: info acquisition
- attention: info selection
- memory: info storage
- EF: control and coord of info processing
4
Q
Development of memory and EF
A
- major changes during infancy and childhood
- functions often dissociable in brain mechanisms and ages
5
Q
memory
A
- STM: capacity 7+-2, quick to learn & forget
- LTM: procedural/implicit & declarative/explicit, unlimited, slow to learn & forget
- multiple memory systems dissociable in functions and neural bases
6
Q
brain areas involved in memory
A
- frontal lobe - STM
- pfc & parts of temporal - encoding of words & pictures
- hippocampus - formation of LT declarative memory. bind elements of memories for easier retrieval
- cerebellum - form & retain simple classically conditioned responses
- cerebral cortex - storage of LT memories possibly in areas involved in original perception of info
7
Q
infantile amnesia
A
- piaget - children 18m less are incapable of representing out of sight objects
- adults have few memories below age 3
- perhaps previous tests were poorly designed and relied on verbal skills? (Rovee-collier 1999)
8
Q
development of infant LTM
A
- rovee collier 1999
> infants learn kicking makes mobile move. tested with trained or novel mobile.
> 3m remember after 1wk delay, length of retention inc linearly with age but more training sessions will extend retention interval even at younger ages.
> at 8wk: 2 9m training sessions = 2 day retention. 3 6m training sessions = 2 week memory
> older children better able to be prompted by novel mobile and remember in new context
> this shows recognition but infants can also by primed by a cue - alt test is deferred imitation/elicited imitation (Bauer & Leventon 2013) - infants from 6m asked to imitate adult sequences
> preverbal infants recall action sequences many months later. older infants better retention.
> more repetition longer recall
> also importance of consolidation
9
Q
Development of LTM: episodic memory
A
- infantile amnesia. but children 2-3 can remember specific events over long time periods. helped by shared reminiscence.
- Bauer et al. (2007) - studied 7-10y autobiographical memories using 14 cue words. most memories recalled were in the past 2-3 years, youngest was 3y and 8m.
- infants forgetting curve differs: in adults over time forgetting slows due to consolidation of older memories. in children forgetting is constant rate and not consolidated so vulnerable to being forgotten.
- lack of early memories not due to lack of formation but due to forgetting from development of memory networks
- complexity of memories inc across childhood.
10
Q
development of STM in infancy: delayed response
A
- interest of stimulus, hide it, test after how long an interval it is found = estimate of duration of WM
- with infants shows development of STM with age - relates to development of pfc (Diamond & Doar 1989) & relates to performance on A not B task = similar mechanisms involved
- capacity of delay that is tolerant inc with age
- numbers easier to recall than letters. digit span was 8 for college students, 6-7 for 12y anf 4 for 5y
- factors: items of interest remembered better, chunking developed, rehearsal strategies developed
11
Q
relating changes in memory capabilities to brain development
A
- ST: major PFC development synaptic growth then pruning in first 2y, further development through childhood into adolescence
- LT: hipp espec dentate gyrus develop to age 4-5. hipp inc in volume into adolescence
12
Q
direct correlations between brain activity and memory abilities in development: STM
A
- Bell & Fox 1992 - EEG difs in 7-12m who can vs cannot sold A not B task after 13s delay:
> power of EEG signal at front electrodes
> coherence of EEG signals between front and back - indiv difs in brain activity (related to maturation of PFC) explain some indiv difs in A not B task
13
Q
direct correlation between brain activity and memory abilities in development: LTM
A
- Hoffman 2022 - fornix = WM pathway from hipp to brain
-fornix structure inc with age - inc in fornix macrostructure are cor with improved episodic memory
14
Q
executive function
A
- high level cog skills including planning, reasoning, WM, inhibition, cog flexibility & cognitive control,
- tower of london task
- A not B inc elements of WM and inhibition
- pfc crucial for EF. damage = problems with planning, inhibition & cog control
15
Q
development of EF: working memory
A
- WM is an aspect of EF as well as an aspect of memory
- Diamond & Doar 1989 - inc retention interval for spatial location proposed to relate to development of pfc
- mental workspace
16
Q
development of EF: cognitive flexibility
A
- dimensional change card sort task: sort by shape then by colour
- typically developing children can switch by 4 years, younger children have difficulty switching. cog flexibility developed at 4
- impaired in children with ADHD and autism
17
Q
development of EF: planning
A
- use tower of hanoi task
- major improvements in ability to plan ahead
- older children likely to pursue long term goals & could keep more subgoals
- 5y struggle at 5 problem length
- implication with school starting age
18
Q
development of EF: inhibition
A
- inhibiting a routine or familiar response
- use stroop task
- have to read out coloured ink rather than written word = inhibit typical response
- day night task is alternative for children
- pictorial so not reading
- 70% correct at 3.5y > 90% cirrect at age 7
19
Q
unity and diversity framework
A
- a number of these processes of EF seem to be separable but can be connected
- WM tests updating, shifting, & inhibition - there are cor in performance of these.
- many do not use independent functions
- performance on WM tests have a unity of a common EF factor as well as diversity = there are factors specific to updating and factors specific to shifting
- unity may be due to underlying by PFC which underpins many EFs.
- children show more common ground amongst EFs
20
Q
EFs and brain development
A
- PFC crucial for EF
- major pfc development and synaptic growth in first 2y, and then further through childhood and into adolescence
- PFC last to mature - changes in GM density from MRI - as pruning occurs density dec
- Also evidence changes in PFC function accompany changes in EF
- E.g. Morguchi et al 2009 - children do card sorting task while NIRS scan - all aged 5 but only 75% aged 3 switched rules. change in blood oxygenation in frontal areas between control phase - in 4=3y passing vs 3yr perservering can see big change in relation to 5y
21
Q
atypical development of EF
A
- ASD, ADHD, Tourettes are associated with impaired EF
- not all children who meet clinical diagnosis for ASD or ADHD show EF impairments so EF impairment alone cannot explain these disorders
- some evidence EF impairment contributes to reading difficulty, language impairment and behavioural problems.
