Lecture 3 - Memory Flashcards
What are the two assumptions of the levels of processing according to Craik and Lockhart (1972)?
- Levels-of-processing effect: the level or depth of stimulus processing has a large effect on its memorability
- Deeper levels of analyses produce more elaborate, longer lasting and stronger memory traces than shallow levels
Deep processing vs. shallow processing (Craik & Tulving, 1975)
- Deep processing condition requires the processing of the meaning of a word (e.g., does the word fit into the sentence?)
- Shallow processing condition doesn’t require the processing of the meaning of the word (e.g., is the word printed in capital letters?)
- Recognition memory was higher in the deep processing condition compared to the shallow processing condition
What is explicit memory?
Involves conscious recollection of information
What is implicit memory?
Does not depend on conscious recollection
Levels-of-processing effect comparison between explicit and implicit memory (Challis et al., 1996)
The levels of processing effect was greater in the case of explicit memory compared to implicit memory
How was distinctiveness measured using irregular nouns by Eysenck & Eysenck, 1980? (Comb study)
- Distinctive processing condition (pronounce the ‘b’ in comb)
- Non-distinctive processing condition (pronounce comb normally, without pronouncing ‘b’)
- Recognition memory was higher in the distinctive processing condition compared to non-distinctive processing condition
What is forgetting?
The process by which memory is lost
How did Ebbinghaus study forgetting?
By using the saving method where the number of trials for relearning is compared against the number of original learning.
In what ways can forgetting be beneficial?
- Enhance psychological well-being by reducing access to painful memories (Freud, repression)
- Useful to forget outdates information so it doesn’t interfere with current information (e.g., old phone numbers)
- Useful to forget specific details and focus on overall gist or message when remembering something read or heard
What are the major theories in forgetting?
- Decay
- Interference
- Motivated forgetting
Not mutually exclusive - can occur at the same time
What is decay?
- Forgetting from long-term memory
- Occurs in the hippocampus
- May primarily impact the forgetting of detailed memories, forgetting weak memories is thought to be the result of interference
What are the two types of interference?
Proactive and retroactive
What is proactive interference?
Impairment of learning or performance of a task caused by having previously learnt similar information or a similar task (Coleman, 2015)
What is retroactive interference?
Impairment of memory for previously learnt information, or performance of a previously learnt task, caused by subsequent learning of similar information or a similar task (Coleman, 2015)
Proactive interference in the interference study by Bauml & Kliegl, 2013
- Two groups - experimental and control
- Given lists of word pairs to learn
- Experimental group given one list and then another list with the same first word in the word pairs
- Control group only learned the second list of word pairs
- During testing phase, only the first word was given and PTs had to state the second word
- If the experimental group answered the second word in the first list instead of second, proactive interference may have occurred as info they learned previously caused them to be unable to remember the new info
Retroactive interference in the interference study by Bauml & Kliegl, 2013
- Same concept as proactive but instead of being asked to state second word in the second list they state the second word in the first list
- The disruption of memory for previously learned info by new info being given - if they answered incorrectly by stating the second word in the second list instead of the first list
What is motivated forgetting according to Freud?
Motivated forgetting is labelled ‘repression’
- Block threatening or traumatic memories from gaining access to conscious awareness which helps in reducing anxiety
- Recovered memories - childhood traumatic memories forgotten for several years and then remembered in adult life
- Most recovered memories are actually false memories referring to imaginary events (Loftus & Davies, 2006)
What are the two types of motivated forgetting that can be studied?
directed forgetting and cue-dependent forgetting
What is directed forgetting (motivated forgetting)?
- Reduced long-term memory caused by instructions to forget information that had been presented for learning
- Potential mechanism: direct of rehearsal process, inhibitory process
- PTs direct their rehearsal of into to words they’re told to remember and not those to forget
- Some studies show this is not always successful
What is cue-dependent forgetting (motivated forgetting)?
- Forgetting may occur because we lack the appropriate retrieval cue
- Encoding specificity principle (Tulving, 1979)
- E.g., you have forgotten someone’s name but could identify it in a list of 4 possible choices, thus you do remember their name just lack the ability to retrieve the information
According to Schacter & Tulving (1994), what are the four long-term memory systems?
- Episodic memory
- Semantic memory
- Procedural memory
- Perceptual representation system
What evidence do we have that informs us about the existence of several memory systems as opposed to just one?
Amnesia - caused by brain damage in which there is severe impairment of long-term memory
Korsakoff’s syndrome (mental disorder) - amnesia caused by chronic alcoholism - usually well preserved in comparison to other issues like dementia
What are the two types of amnesic syndrome?
Anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia
What is anterograde amnesia?
Impairment in the ability to learn and remember information encountered after the onset of amnesia - affects claritive memory and not procedory memory
