Lecture 3 knowledge clips Flashcards
Job crafting
What can you do yourself to improve how the job fits you?
On the 19th of June 2013 there was a workplace accident in a manure silo at a dairy farm, which resulted in three fatalities and a serious injury. An employee of a specialized cleaning company had been cleaning and repairing the inside of the silo. Despite wearing an air mask he was overcome by manure gasses, his colleague called for help and entered the silo unprotected, followed by an agricultural contractor from the farm and the farm owner Mark. They were all overcome by the manure gasses. Mark’s father alerted the emergency services and tried to make a hole in the steel silo with his tractor to free the victims from the predicament, but his attempts were unsuccessful. Eventually, the fire brigade made a hole in the silo and the victims were resuscitated, but only the agricultural contractor survived.
What were the occupational hazards in this case?
- Poisoning by a combination of chemicals in combination with an enclosed space.
- There was insufficient protection from the manure gasses.
- Helping each other without protection.
- They should have used masks with compressed air rather than air masks.
Definition occupational hazards
The working conditions that may result in workplace accidents or workplace diseases.
Kinds of occupational hazards that exist in the workplace
- Physical demands
- Chemical substances
- Dangerous situations
- Environmental load
- Social hazards
- Social strain
- Working hours
What example belongs to what kind of occupational hazard?
- Pushing
- Night shift
- Radiation
- Vehicles
- Mental overload
- Aggression
- Lifting
- Explosives
- Intimidation
- Poor air quality
- Long working hours
- Physical demands
o E.g., pushing, pulling, lifting - Chemical substances
o E.g., biological agents, explosives, nanoparticles - Dangerous situations
o E.g., working from heights, vehicles, machines - Environmental load
o E.g., noise, cold, heat, vibration, radiation,, poor air quality - Social hazards
o E.g., aggression, bullying, intimidation - Social strain
o E.g., high workload, mental overload, emotional demands - Working hours
o E.g., night shift, shift work, overtime, long working hours
What must an organisation do to protect health and safety of employees?
The organisation is legally bound to provide safe and healthy work.
Who is primarily responsible for the safety and health of the employees?
The employer
What should the employer do first and foremost when there is a occupational hazard?
Tackle the hazard at the source
What should the organisation focus on in terms of the trichotomy?
On the work, not the person or the organisation.
What can and must the employer do to protect the health and safety of employees? And in what order?
- The employer has to eliminate or reduce the risk.
- If that’s not possible, the employer should focus on prevention and reduce the exposure to the risk.
- If it’s impossible to change the work, the employer can also focus on the person.
- Focus on the organisation
What example belongs to what step an employer can take in order to protect the health and safety of employees?
- Promoting the workload capacity of employees such as training for dealing with aggression.
- Replacing toxic materials.
- The safety culture: social norms regarding safety.
- Providing training and education such as teaching employees to work safely.
- Personal protection equipment such as a harness or a helmet.
- Sparing measures, to protect risk groups from exposure.
Promoting the workload capacity of employees such as training for dealing with aggression.
- Focus on the person
Replacing toxic materials.
- Eliminating or reducing the risk
The safety culture: social norms regarding safety.
- Focus on the organisation
Providing training and education such as teaching employees to work safely.
- Focus on the person
Personal protection equipment such as a harness or a helmet.
- Focus on prevention and reducing the exposure to the risk
Sparing measures, to protect risk groups from exposure.
- Focus on the organisation
Hochschild (1983)
Hochschild (1983) reports on research conducted on flight attendants, she looked into the often implicit social rules concerning the emotions that must be shown or hidden at work. Flight attendants have to deal with the emotions of passengers while always remaining friendly themselves.
What is emotional labour?
A special kind of psychosocial demand
Discrepancy between experienced and displayed emotion
In many service oriented occupations you’re expected to always smile while you work, which is difficult if it doesn’t match with the emotion you are experiencing. It can be difficult to hide negative emotions when you have to show positive emotions at the same time. This emotional discrepancy can lead to emotional exhaustion.
What are the two strategies in dealing with the discrepancy between experienced and displayed emotion?
- Deep acting
- You can try to feel the emotions needed
- Surface acting
- You can try to show the emotion needed without experiencing the emotion
Article by Ybema & Van Dam (2014)
Cross-sectional study among three groups of occupations
- Sales (N = 480)
- Health care (N = 399)
- Education (N = 220)
What was measured in the article by Ybema & Van Dam (2014)?
- Whether the individuals at work were required to show positive emotions such as cheerful, self-assured and interested. This is called “positive display rules”.
- Whether they were required to hide negative emotions such as feelings of concern, sadness, uncertainty or annoyance. This is called “negative display rules”
What did Ybema & Van Dam (2014) examine?
To what extent these display rules are related to emotional exhaustion and work engagement. It turned out that the same pattern occurred in all three groups of occupations.
What are the results of Ybema & Van Dam (2014)?
- Negative display rules are positively related to positive display rules
o If you have to hide negative emotions you are more likely to have to display positive emotions. - Emotional exhaustion and work engagement are negatively related
- Being required to hide negative emotions was related to higher emotional exhaustion and lower work engagement.
- Having to show positive emotions was related to somewhat lower emotional exhaustion and more strongly to higher work engagement.
How can the results by Ybema & Van Dam (2014) be explained?
This can be explained by the JD-R model, hiding negative emotions is a job demand whereas showing positive emotions can be seen as a challenge which enhances job resources.
What is important to remember in the article by Ybema & Van Dam (2014)?
That it is a cross sectional study, which means that reverse effects can also play a role.
How should employees deal with negative emotions at work?
- Show them to customers?
- Show them to the supervisor?
- Show them to coworkers?
- Try to replace them by positive emotions through deep acting?
- Show them to customers?
o That’s probably not a good idea - Show them to the supervisor?
o Depends on your relationship, e.g., you might get emotional support but it can also backfire when they conclude you’re not fit for the job. - Show them to coworkers?
o Depends on your relationship - A good organisation provides a social atmosphere where you can show your concerns or negative emotions without negative consequences.
- Try to replace them by positive emotions through deep acting?
o This may seem ideal but it’s probably not always feasible.
o It’s not a good idea to continue hiding your negative emotions for a long time, especially not to yourself. These negative emotions have a function to show you something is wrong and that something needs to be done to change the working situation.
Theories of work design
There are a number of influential theories of work design that focus on how the work should be designed such that employees can do their job in a productive and motivated manner.
Frederick Taylor (1911): Principles of scientific management
He maintained that work tasks should be divided into the smallest possible units, such that every employee can fulfil his own task in a specialized manner. It has really improved productivity but it also led to a degraded quality of work tasks and to alienation from work tasks.
Herzberg et al. (1959): motivation-hygiene theory
The importance of Human Relations at work was emphasised, as well as the need for enrichment and the broadening of tasks.
Herzberg and colleagues introduced the two factor theory, also called the motivation-hygiene theory. They stated that there is a difference in hygiene factors and motivators at work.
What are the hygiene factors in the motivation-hygiene or two factor theory?
- Examples: salary, job security, working hours, physical working conditions.
- If the hygiene factors are poor, the workers are dissatisfied, but good hygiene factors do not lead to satisfaction or high work motivation.
What are the motivators in the motivation-hygiene or two factor theory?
- Examples: challenge, autonomy, responsibility and appreciation.
- Satisfaction of these motivators lead to higher motivation and growth.
What do the hygiene factors and motivators resemble?
The distinction in the JD-R model, between job demands and job resources
Hackman & Oldham (1975): Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
This the most influential theory on work design.
The model distinguishes five core job characteristics.
What five core job characteristics are distinguished by the JCM?
- Skill variety
- Task identity
- Task significance
- Autonomy
- Feedback from job
Skill variety in the JCM
- The degree to which a job requires a variety of skills.
- You can use more of your own talents in varied work than in routine work.
Skill variety is an equivalent to skill discretion in the JC-model.
Task identity in the JCM
- The degree to which you make a clear product in your work.
- Example: when you assemble a whole car, it provides more task identity than if you only put in one screw.
Task significane in the JCM
The degree to which your work influences other people within or outside of your organisation.
Autonomy in the JCM
- The freedom to carry out or plan work in a way that you want to do it.
- This creates a greater sense of responsibility for the outcomes of the work that you do.
Feedback from job in the JCM
- Does your work provide clear feedback on how well you’re doing.
- This does not concern interpersonal feedback but an insight into work outcomes.
- This results in you knowing how to improve work performance.
The three psychological states in the JCM
- Meaningful work
- Responsibility for work outcomes
- Knowledge of results
The three psychological states explain how job characteristics influence work outcomes.
What are the job outcomes in the JCM?
- Job satisfaction
- Intrinsic motivation
- Work performance
- Low absence
- Low turnover
Growth need strength in the JCM
- A personality variable that acts as a moderator.
- The degree to which someone wants to develop, learn something and achieve something personally.
- It moderates the relationship between core job characteristics and psychological states
- It moderates the relationship between psychological states and work outcomes.
- The stronger the need for high growth, the more likely working conditions will lead to perceptions of psychological states, and these perceptions are also more likely to influence work outcomes.