Lecture 3 Chemistry of neurotransmitters

Question 1

Question: What role does noradrenaline play as a neurotransmitter in the brain?

Answer 1

Answer: Noradrenaline, also known as norepinephrine, affects attention and response actions in the brain.

Question 2

Question: In what physiological response does noradrenaline play a role alongside adrenaline?

Answer 2

Answer: Noradrenaline, alongside adrenaline, is involved in the ‘fight or flight’ response.

Question 3

Question: What is the physiological effect of noradrenaline on blood vessels?

Answer 3

Answer: Noradrenaline contracts blood vessels, leading to increased blood flow.

Question 4

Question: How is noradrenaline-related medication commonly used in the treatment of ADHD?

Answer 4

Answer: Patients diagnosed with ADHD are often prescribed drugs designed to increase levels of noradrenaline in the brain.

Question 5

Question: What is the molecular formula of noradrenaline?

Answer 5

The molecular formula of noradrenaline is C8H11NO3, with a molecular weight of 169.18 g/mol.

Question 6

Question: What is another name for adrenaline?

Answer 6

Answer: Adrenaline is also known as epinephrine.

Question 7

Question: What are the physiological effects of adrenaline?

Answer 7

Adrenaline stimulates increased heart rate, contracts blood vessels, and dilates airways to increase blood flow to muscles and oxygen to the lungs.

Question 8

Question: What outcomes result from the physiological effects of adrenaline?

Answer 8

Answer: Adrenaline leads to a physical boost and heightened awareness.

Question 9

Question: How do EpiPens, used for allergic reactions, work?

Answer 9

Answer: EpiPens work by injecting adrenaline to counteract allergic reactions, ensuring increased heart rate, improved blood flow, and airway dilation.

Question 10

Question: What is the molecular formula of adrenaline?

Answer 10

Answer: The molecular formula of adrenaline is C9H13NO3, with a molecular weight of 183.21 g/mol.

Question 11

Question: What feelings are commonly associated with dopamine?

Answer 11

Answer: Dopamine is associated with feelings of pleasure and satisfaction.

Question 12

Question: Besides pleasure, what other aspects of human behavior and physiology are linked to dopamine?

Answer 12

Answer: Dopamine is associated with addiction, movement, and motivation.

Question 13

Question: How can the feelings of satisfaction caused by dopamine lead to repeated behaviors?

Answer 13

Answer: The satisfaction induced by dopamine can lead individuals to repeat behaviors that trigger its release.

Question 14

Question: Give examples of both natural and “unnatural” behaviors that can be driven by dopamine.

Answer 14

Answer: Natural behaviors include eating and sex, while “unnatural” behaviors may involve drug addiction.

Question 15

Question: What is the molecular formula of dopamine?

Answer 15

Answer: The molecular formula of dopamine is C8H11NO2, with a molecular weight of 153.18 g/mol.

Question 16

Question: What is serotonin thought to contribute to in terms of emotions?

Answer 16

Answer: Serotonin is thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness.

Question 17

Question: Besides emotions, what physiological processes does serotonin regulate?

Answer 17

Answer: Serotonin regulates the sleep cycle along with melatonin and is involved in regulating intestinal movements.

Question 18

Question: What mental health conditions are linked to low levels of serotonin?

Answer 18

Answer: Low levels of serotonin have been linked to depression, anxiety, and some mental disorders.

Question 19

Question: How do antidepressants typically work in relation to serotonin levels?

Answer 19

Answer: Antidepressants work by increasing serotonin levels.

Question 20

Question: What factors, besides medication, can have positive effects on serotonin levels?

Answer 20

Answer: Exercise and exposure to light can both have positive effects on serotonin levels.

Question 21

Question: What is the primary role of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain?

Answer 21

Answer: GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain, calming firing nerves in the central nervous system.

Question 22

Question: What are the effects of increased levels of GABA in the brain?

Answer 22

Answer: Increased levels of GABA can improve mental focus and relaxation.

Question 23

Question: What consequences are associated with low levels of GABA?

Answer 23

Answer: Low levels of GABA can lead to anxiety and have been linked with epilepsy.

Question 24

Question: Besides calming, what other functions does GABA contribute to?

Answer 24

Answer: GABA also contributes to motor control and vision.

Question 25

Question: How do drugs to treat epilepsy typically act in relation to GABA levels?

Answer 25

Answer: Drugs to treat epilepsy often act by increasing levels of GABA in the brain.

Question 26

Question: What can you say about the role of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors based on conformation?

Answer 26

Answer: GABA receptors have contrasting roles depending on their conformation.

Question 27

Question: What cognitive functions are primarily associated with acetylcholine?

Answer 27

Answer: Acetylcholine is the principal neurotransmitter involved in thought, learning, and memory.

Question 28

Question: What role does acetylcholine play in the body besides its cognitive functions?

Answer 28

Answer: In the body, acetylcholine is involved in activating muscle action.

Question 29

Question: What is the link between acetylcholine and Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 29

Answer: Damage to the acetylcholine-producing areas of the brain has been associated with the memory deficits seen in Alzheimer’s disease.

Question 30

Question: What cognitive aspect is acetylcholine associated with besides memory?

Answer 30

Answer: Acetylcholine is associated with attention.

Question 31

Question: When does acetylcholine contribute to the enhancement of sensory perception?

Answer 31

Answer: Acetylcholine enhances sensory perception, especially upon waking.

Question 32

Question: What is the primary role of glutamate among neurotransmitters in the brain?

Answer 32

Answer: Glutamate is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Question 33

Question: What cognitive functions are influenced by glutamate?

Answer 33

Answer: Glutamate is involved in cognitive functions such as learning and memory.

Question 34

Question: Besides cognitive functions, what other role does glutamate play in the brain?

Answer 34

Answer: Glutamate regulates brain development and the creation of nerve contacts.

Question 35

Question: How can brain damage or strokes contribute to harmful excess glutamate levels?

Answer 35

Answer: Brain damage or strokes can lead to the creation of a harmful excess of glutamate, resulting in the death of brain cells.

Question 36

Question: What are endorphins composed of, and what is the biologically active section?

Answer 36

Answer: Endorphins are composed of long chains of multiple amino acids, with the biologically active section being the key.

Question 37

Question: What events trigger the release of endorphins in the brain?

Answer 37

Answer: Endorphins are released during exercise, excitement, pain, and sexual activity, leading to a feeling of well-being or euphoria.

Question 38

Question: How many types of endorphins have been identified in humans?

Answer 38

Answer: At least 20 types of endorphins have been identified in humans.

Question 39

Question: Besides activities, what types of foods can stimulate the release of endorphins?

Answer 39

Answer: Certain foods, such as chocolate and spicy foods, can also stimulate the release of endorphins.

Question 40

Question: How are endorphins primarily synthesized?

Answer 40

Answer: Endorphins are made via the proteolytic cleavage of Proenkephalin.

Question 41

Question: How do endorphins interact with opiate receptors?

Answer 41

Answer: Endorphins react with opiate receptors through many interaction sites.

Question 42

What is a structural difference between noradrenaline and adrenaline

Answer 42

Noradrenaline has a primary amine at the end of its structure whereas adrenaline has a secondary amine.