Lecture 3 Flashcards
What is Pythagoreanism, and why is it connected to “The Forms”?
Pythagoreanism is the idea that the universe is made up of maths. The Forms represents the abstract ideas of how we understand the world, although reality doesn’t always guarantee this understanding, and this is Pythagoreanism extended or a metaphor for philosophy.
What is the Socratic method, and in contrast to this method, what did Plato’s allegory of the cave represent regarding people’s preferences for comfort over the unknown?
The Socratic method is a focus on logic, not knowledge. Plato’s allegory of the cave represents how people would rather live comfortably than something unknown, even though it may be arguably better; this is commenting on Socrates’ habit of putting his “head in the clouds” to understand everything from above and thus question it.
Aristotle proposed that the soul causes four things. What are these four things, and how do they relate to his division of the three forms of the soul?
Aristotle proposed that the soul causes material, formal (essential), efficient, and final things. Aristotle divides the soul between three forms: the nutritive soul, which is in humans, animals, and plants; the sensitive soul, which is in humans and animals; and the rational soul, which is in humans.
Describe the views of Ancient Greek noblemen on women, including what Plato and Aristotle specifically said about the status and capabilities of women.
Ancient Greek noblemen were misogynistic. Plato said that all the pursuits of men are the pursuits of women also, but in all of them, a woman is inferior to a man. Aristotle said that the relation of male to female is by nature a relation of superior to inferior and ruler to ruled. Additionally, Aristotle stated that the female has the deliberative element, but it lacks authority.
Who was Saint Thomas Aquinas, how did Aristotle’s works return to Europe and influence him, and how did Aquinas reconcile Aristotle’s ideas with Christian beliefs, as seen in his interpretation of the soul and estimation?
Saint Thomas Aquinas’s Christian understanding of Aristotle provides a window for Greek science and philosophy. The works of Aristotle filtered back into Europe via Spain and Avicenna and Averroism. Aquinas follows Ibn Sina’s version of Aristotle’s model of the soul, but is careful to keep it Christian. For example, Aquinas believed there are two types of estimation: “estimation proper,” such as when a cat sees a mouse and immediately pounces, and “cogitava,” such as when a human sees a mouse and decides freely whether to pounce or take a picture of it.
Explain the concepts of material cause, formal cause (essential cause), efficient cause, and final cause (telology).
Material cause is the building blocks. Formal cause, or essential cause, is the essence of the thing. Efficient cause is the primary cause of the material cause being transformed into a form, or the “how”. Final cause is the purpose, or telology, which is the “why”.
What do the terms Eudaimonia and Ataraxia mean, and how did the Epicureans, Cynics, Skeptics, and Stoics each approach achieving Ataraxia?
Eudaimonia means happiness, but also virtue, living well, and being lucky. Ataraxia means attaining a sense of tranquility or freedom from disturbance. The Epicureans approached achieving Ataraxia through happiness by avoiding strong passions and simply living. The Cynics approached it by rejecting society altogether and doing things like masturbating in public. The Skeptics approached it by not expecting anything, so you will not be disappointed. The Stoics, whose philosophy was for slaves and Roman emperors and the developers of CBT, believed that things themselves are not inherently disturbing, but the opinions or perceptions of them are.
Who was Diogenes Laertius, and what did he write about the origins of philosophy?
Diogenes Laertius wrote “The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers”. Regarding the origins of philosophy, Laertius wrote, “Some say that the study of philosophy originate with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi… but those that say this ignorantly impute to the barbarians the merits of the Greeks from whom not only all philosophy, but even the whole human race in reality originated”
Describe Ancient Greek society, including its views on slavery as articulated by Aristotle, and what did Laertius credit Pythagoras with inventing?
Ancient Greek society was elitist, brutal, and warlike, and it was dominated by a caste of warrior men. Aristotle said regarding slavery, “For he is a slave by nature who is capable of belonging to another, which is also why he belongs to another”. Laertius credits Pythagoras with inventing the word “philosophy” and with what may be the earliest theory of psychology.
Who were the Pre-Socratics, where do their arguments primarily survive, and what did they mark the start of in Western Civilization?
The Pre-Socratics were the initial philosophers in the Ancient Greek tradition of critical inquiry. The arguments of the Pre-Socratics primarily survive in references and quotations by later writers like Laertius. The Pre-Socratics marked the start of philosophy, science, and mathematics in Western Civilization.
Discuss the soul according to Laertius, including its divisions, where it is found, and where its aspects reside. Also, address what the document says about Pythagoras’s contributions.
According to Laertius, the soul of man is divided into three parts: intuition, reason, and mind. Only the first and last parts, intuition and mind, are found in other animals, while the middle part, reason, is found only in man. The soul is found between the heart and the brain; the mind resides in the heart, but deliberation and reason reside in the brain. The document states that Laertius credits Pythagoras with what may be the earliest theory of psychology.
Describe Athens during its Classical Period, including its form of government, key events, and famous figures.
Athens was the biggest city in Ancient Greece, with 40,000 citizens, meaning adult Athenian-born males who had property. Athens’ Classical Period lasted from 508 BC, when the tyrant Hippias was overthrown, to 322 BC, when Alexander died. During the Classical Period, Athens was a democracy. Key events during this time include the Battle of Thermopylae and the Peloponnesian War. Famous people from Athens during this period include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Discuss Plato’s philosophy of “The Forms,” how it relates to Pythagoreanism, and his views on the soul.
Plato’s philosophy of The Forms represents the abstract ideas of how we understand the world, although reality doesn’t always guarantee this understanding. This concept is an extension of Pythagoreanism or a metaphor for philosophy. Plato believed that the soul was comprised of a pair of winged horses, which may be intuition, and a charioteer, which is the ego of the mind.
Explain Aristotle’s approach to knowledge and science, contrasting what he did that was similar to and different from a modern scientist.
Aristotle acted like a modern scientist in that he assumed the foundations of knowledge have to be empirical research and made theories based on such findings. However, Aristotle did not act like a modern scientist because he did not use maths or unnatural experiments.
How did Plato’s philosophy evolve, particularly focusing on ‘The Word’ (logos) and the contributions of Plotinus?
Plato’s philosophy evolved and became focused on The Word, or logos. Plotinus turned Plato into something more mystical. Plotinus believed that a higher being is the ruler of the Forms and that we should disdain that which is temporal.
Explain the rise of Christianity, its initial appeal, and the integration of Neoplatonism by St. Augustine.
European religion before Christianity was local, but Christianity was international. Christianity initially appealed to those who moved between worlds in a diverse multi-ethnic empire, such as the Roman Empire. St. Augustine fully integrated Neoplatonism and Christianity, influenced by Plato’s idea of the soul, and developed the idea of original sin.
What was the Islamic Golden Age, and what role did the House of Wisdom and figures like Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd play in preserving and expanding Greek philosophy?
The Islamic Golden Age was a period when pre-Christian Greek and Roman philosophy was largely lost in the West. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, from the 9th to 13th centuries, put in place by Caliph Harun al-Rashid, translated many ancient works of philosophy into Arabic, including Aristotle. Ibn Sina, a physician, wrote a series of commentaries on Aristotle, expanded upon his ideas, and tried to align them with Galen’s physiology and Islamic beliefs. Ibn Rushd, a physician and judge, also wrote commentary on Aristotle, expanding upon it, and saw five rather than three souls.
Discuss the High Middle Ages in Europe, including the re-emergence of philosophy and science, the founding of universities, and the views of Saint Anselm of Canterbury.
The High Middle Ages in Europe, from 1000 to 1500 AD, was a religious world of kings, Crusades, and monks, but also an age where philosophy and science started to happen again. Universities were founded in Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. Saint Anselm of Canterbury was a typical early medieval thinker who believed in “Faith through understanding” and that theology is the queen of sciences and philosophy is the maidservant.
Who was William of Ockham, and how did his views on the relationship between mental concepts and reality differ from those of medieval philosophers before him?
William of Ockham lived from 1287 to 1347. Until Ockham, medieval philosophers had believed that something real must conform to each mental concept, such as The Forms, but Ockham said that it was simpler than that and psychology is not metaphysics. Ockham also looked at the faculty psychology of Aristotle, Ibn Sina, and Aquinas, and said that faculties are unnecessary reifications and everything is learned habits.
