lecture 3 Flashcards
What is culture?
Culture is the part of the environment made by humans, consisting of meanings and everyday practices adopted or developed by a group in a specific time and place.
What functions does culture serve?
Culture facilitates smooth social coordination, clarifies group boundaries, and provides a space for innovation.
What are the two main dimensions of culture?
Material (Objective) Culture and Subjective Culture.
What is material (objective) culture?
It includes physical objects such as buildings, tools, clothing, and methods of transportation.
What is subjective culture?
It consists of characteristic ways of viewing the environment, including ideas, theories, and standards for judging events (e.g., political, religious, scientific, aesthetic, economic, moral, and social standards).
How can subjective culture be institutionalized?
Through government, education, religion, and other societal systems.
How does culture relate to social and emotional interactions?
All social and emotional interactions occur within a specific cultural context, shaped by shared beliefs and practices.
How does culture unite and differentiate communities?
It creates shared beliefs and practices that bring communities together while also distinguishing them from others.
Why might something that appears to be a universal feature of development actually be cultural?
Because what seems universal is often just one of many possible cultural solutions to a problem.
What is culture shock?
The experience of disorientation when encountering a cultural environment different from one’s own.
What are possible reactions to culture shock?
It can be a negative or positive reaction to experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration, travel, or moving between social environments.
What metaphor is used to describe culture?
Culture is an iceberg – the biggest parts of culture are things we are not consciously aware of; emotive valence is huge.
How does culture affect solutions to problems?
What may appear to be a universal feature of development is often one of myriad cultural solutions to a problem.
What did rankings from over 80,000 employees of a large multinational corporation show?
Western nations tended to encourage greater individualism, especially compared to nations in Latin America and Asia.
What are Traditional values?
Traditional values emphasize the importance of religion, parent-child ties, deference to authority, and traditional family values. People who embrace these values also reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride and a nationalistic outlook.
What are Secular-Rational values?
Secular-rational values are the opposite of traditional values. They place less emphasis on religion, traditional family values, and authority. Divorce, euthanasia, abortion, and suicide are seen as relatively acceptable.
What are Survival values?
Survival values place emphasis on economic and physical security and are linked with a relatively ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and tolerance.
What are Self-Expression values?
Self-expression values prioritize environmental protection, tolerance of foreign, gays and lesbians, gender equality, and rising demands for participation in decision-making in economic and political life.
What are social norms?
An important aspect that we take for granted.
What is Tightness in cultures?
Tight cultures have strict social norms and high levels of punishment for nonconformity. They have more order, coordination, and uniformity. People in tight cultures regulate their behavior a lot to avoid punishment.
What is Looseness in cultures?
Loose cultures have more relaxed norms and lower levels of punishment. They are more open to new ideas (more creative), new people (less ethnocentric), and change.
What causes tight vs. loose cultures to develop?
Objective threats (such as pathogens, wars, or invasions) lead to a need for social coordination and the development of strict social norms in some societies.
What is Collectivism?
Collectivism values concern for others and groups, dependence and relationships, conformity, harmony, traditions, and indirect communication. It fosters an interdependent self.
What is Interdependent self-construal?
The thoughts, feelings, and actions of others in the relationship. It is connected with the social context and emphasizes belonging, fitting in, and promoting others’ goals.
What is Individualism?
Individualism values concern for individual self, independence, standing out, competition, and direct communication. It fosters an independent self.
What is Independent self-construal?
The reference to one’s own internal repertoire of thoughts, feelings, and actions. It is separated from the social context and emphasizes self-expression, self-actualization, and personal validation.
How is an independent self achieved?
By differentiating from others, relying on interpersonal comparison, and focusing on protecting or enhancing the person psychologically.
What is the Need for Uniqueness?
The pursuit of individualistic goals to produce a sense of specialness relative to others. Others have termed it the motive for distinctiveness.
What is the Desire to Stand Out?
People with a high need for uniqueness actively seek ways to differentiate themselves from others.
What is Horizontal Individualism?
A cultural pattern where an autonomous self is postulated, but the individual is more or less equal in status with others.
How does the self relate to others in Horizontal Individualism?
The self is independent and the same as the self of others.
What distribution methods are associated with Horizontal Individualism?
Market pricing and equality matching
What is Vertical Individualism?
A cultural pattern in which an autonomous self is postulated, but individuals see each other as different, and inequality is expected.
How does the self relate to others in Vertical Individualism?
The self is independent and different from the self of others – competition is an important aspect of this pattern.
What distribution methods are associated with Vertical Individualism?
Market pricing and authority ranking.
What is Horizontal Collectivism?
A cultural pattern in which the individual sees the self as an aspect of an ingroup.
How does the self relate to others in Horizontal Collectivism?
The self is merged with the members of the ingroup, all of whom are extremely similar to each other.
What is the self’s role in Horizontal Collectivism?
The self is interdependent and the same as the self of others.
What is the essence of Horizontal Collectivism?
Equality is the essence of this pattern.
What distribution methods are associated with Horizontal Collectivism?
Communal sharing and equality matching.
What is Vertical Collectivism?
A cultural pattern in which an autonomous self is postulated, but individuals see each other as different, and inequality is expected.
How does the self relate to others in Vertical Individualism?
The self is independent and different from the self of others – competition is an important aspect of this pattern.
What distribution methods are associated with Vertical Individualism?
Market pricing and authority ranking.
What is Horizontal Collectivism?
A cultural pattern in which the individual sees the self as an aspect of an ingroup.
How does the self relate to others in Horizontal Collectivism?
The self is merged with the members of the ingroup, all of whom are extremely similar to each other.
What is the self’s role in Horizontal Collectivism?
The self is interdependent and the same as the self of others.
What is the essence of Horizontal Collectivism?
Equality is the essence of this pattern.
What distribution methods are associated with Horizontal Collectivism?
Communal sharing and equality matching.
What is Vertical Collectivism?
A cultural pattern in which the individual sees the self as an aspect of an ingroup, but the members of the ingroup are different from each other, some having more status than others.
How does the self relate to others in Vertical Collectivism?
The self is interdependent and different from the self of others.
How is inequality viewed in Vertical Collectivism?
Inequality is accepted in this pattern and people do not see each other as the same.
What is an important aspect of Vertical Collectivism?
Serving and sacrificing for the ingroup is an important aspect of this pattern.
What distribution methods are associated with Vertical Collectivism?
Communal sharing and authority ranking.
What is Communal Sharing?
If one belongs to the group, one is entitled to share in the resources of the group, according to need.
What is Authority Ranking?
Resources are shared according to rank. (Higher rank = higher share).
What is Equality Matching?
Resources are shared equally. (e.g., one person, one vote).
market pricing
resources are shared according to the contribution of each member. The more a member contributes, the more the member receives
What is dispositional bias in attribution?
The tendency to explain another person’s behavior based on their internal traits rather than situational factors.
What is the norm of internality?
A social valorization of explanations of behaviors and outcomes which emphasize the causal role of the actor.
How do interdependent selves exhibit cognitive style?
They exhibit a holistic cognitive style whereby their attention is more broadly distributed across the context, even when thinking about a specific object.
How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in focus when shown a picture?
Both make an equal number of references to focus objects, but collectivists make significantly more references to background elements.
How do independent selves value self-worth?
They base self-worth on their internal attributes, including feelings, and often seek to maximize positive feelings.
How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in their association of positive emotions?
Individualistic cultures associate general positive emotions with emotions that do not involve engagement with others (e.g., pride—focusing on one’s own achievements).
Collectivistic cultures associate positive emotions with social engagement (e.g., friendly feelings toward others).
How is music used differently in individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures?
Individualistic cultures use music to remember good times.
Collectivistic cultures use music for emotional regulation and socializing.
How do independent and interdependent selves differ in motivation?
Independent selves are motivated to uphold and enhance positive aspects of themselves.
Interdependent selves may not prioritize self-enhancement.
How do individuals in Western cultures typically perceive themselves?
They often perceive themselves as better, smarter, and more important than others.
How do Americans differ from Japanese in their self-esteem responses to success and failure?
Americans report greater increases in self-esteem from successes than decreases from failures, aligning with self-enhancement.
Japanese report that failures have a stronger negative impact on self-esteem than successes have a positive impact, reflecting self-effacement.
What is enemyship?
A personal relationship of hatred and malice in which one person desires another’s downfall or attempts to sabotage another’s progress.
How does enemyship differ between individualistic and collectivistic cultures?
It is more prominent and considered more normal among collectivist participants.
It is more prominent and considered more normal among collectivist participants.
Interdependent models of self and relationship see relationships as inevitable facts of social existence.
Interdependent models of self and relationship see relationships as inevitable facts of social existence.
They place great value on personal freedom, so punishments that take away freedom are especially effective.
How do collectivistic cultures enforce norms?
They place great value on relationships, so punishments that threaten social ties are especially effective.
How does individualism impact behaviors benefiting the collective?
Strong individualism is linked to a lower likelihood of engaging in behaviors benefiting the collective at the expense of personal liberty (e.g., wearing face masks).
What behaviors are more strongly regulated in collectivistic cultures?
Stronger norms for external behaviors, such as not smiling at a funeral and staying quiet in a library.
What behaviors are more strongly regulated in individualistic cultures?
Stronger norms for internal states, particularly in relation to emotional experiences.
How are cultural boundaries described?
They are not distinct and often unclear—cultures are dynamic and change over time.
How does within-culture variation compare to between-culture variation?
Within-culture variation exists just as much as between-culture variation.
How do individuals balance interdependent and independent aspects of self?
People may have both aspects, and which one they draw from depends on cultural experiences and situational context.
How do Latin American samples compare to Western samples in independence?
They emphasized independence at least as much as Western samples across 6/7 dimensions.
How do Middle Eastern samples reflect their cultural values?
They emphasized self-reliance and consistency while also valuing receptiveness to influence and social connection—consistent with “honor cultures.”
How did Sub-Saharan African samples differ from previous characterizations?
They emphasized similarity and dependence on others, but also showed a distinctive focus on self-interest and self-containment.
How is socio-economic development related to self-interest and individualism?
Self-interest was highest in the poorest nations and negatively associated with individualism.
How is commitment to others distributed across cultures?
Commitment to others was highest in rich, Western nations.
How does religious heritage influence cultural models of selfhood?
Distinctive selfhood profiles were found among Catholic and Muslim heritage groups.
What is acculturation?
The contact between groups with different cultural backgrounds, leading to changes in cultural patterns in one or both groups.
What are the four acculturation strategies?
Identity integration
Identity assimilation
Identity infliction
Identity avoidance
Identity integration
Connecting one’s perspective with that of an interaction partner, resulting in new approaches.
Identity assimilation
Adopting the cultural perspective of the interaction partner.
Identity infliction
Imposing one’s cultural perspective on the interaction partner.
Identity avoidance
Avoiding discussion of potentially conflicting cultural perspectives.
What is cultural empathy?
The ability to empathize with feelings, thoughts, and behaviors from different cultural backgrounds.
What is open-mindedness?
Maintaining an unprejudiced attitude toward diverse groups and cultural norms.
What is emotional stability?
Remaining calm under stress and managing strong emotional reactions.
What is flexibility?
Adapting behavioral strategies to new or restrictive circumstances in a foreign culture.
What is social initiative?
Proactively engaging in social situations and taking the initiative.
How do emotional stability and flexibility impact responses to diversity?
They protect individuals from experiencing diversity as a threat.
How do emotionally unstable and inflexible individuals react to diversity?
They respond with anxiety and seek protection in their own cultural worldview, pressuring others to assimilate or excluding them.
How do cultural empathy, open-mindedness, and social initiative shape experiences of diversity?
They predispose individuals to experience diversity as a positive learning experience.
How does open-mindedness relate to cultural harmony?
It positively predicts perceived harmony between different cultures.
